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THE SUMMER SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 

FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

IN THE UNITED STATES 



BY 



CORNELIUS D. JUDD, PH. D. 



GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION 

NUMBER THREE 




PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 

NASHVILLE, TENN. 



Submitted in partial fulfillment of the 
requirements for the 

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

in the Graduate School of Education of 

George Peabody College for Teachers 



J 



THE SUMMER SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 

FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

IN THE UNITED STATES 



BY 



CORNELIUS D. JUDD, PH. D. 



GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION 

NUMBER THREE 




PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 

GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 

NASHVILLE, TENN. 



Copyright, 1921, by Cornelius D. Judd 






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McQuiDDY Printing Co. 
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PREFACE 

The author gives grateful acknowledgment to Dr. Carter 
Alexander, who gave valuable suggestions as to the selec- 
tion and arrangement of material ; to Dr. Shelton J. Phelps, 
who so generously offered advice and criticism from time 
to time; to Miss Ola O. Andrews, who so patiently cor- 
rected the English and composition; to Mrs. C. D. Judd, 
who kindly assisted in preparing and arranging data ; and 
to the numerous authorities of colleges, universities, nor- 
mal schools, and public schools, who responded to question- 
naires and furnished bulletins and catalogs. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I 
Introduction 5 

Chapter II 
History of Summer Schools in the United States 8 

Chapter III 
The Curricula of Summer Schools 35 

Chapter IV 
The Faculties of Summer Schools Compared with Those of the 
Regular Year 66 

Chapter V 
Attendance in Summer Schools 78 

Chapter VI 

Miscellaneous Considerations 81 

Chapter VII 
Some General Advantages and Weaknesses of Summer Schools 84 

Bibliography 87 



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CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

In these modern and progressive days, when "efficiency" 
and "economy" have become the slogans of American busi- 
ness and when the spirit of thrift must characterize all 
successful enterprises, it is but natural that school admin- 
istration recognize and promote any movement tending to 
eliminate waste and that will expand and speed up our edu- 
cational process. Therefore, the summer school has come to 
claim the attention and serious consideration of educa- 
tional leaders everywhere; for it presents an administra- 
tive problem whose proper solution seems to be fraught 
with tremendous possibilities. Such possibilities are to be 
realized largely thru a more rapid and a more thoro train- 
ing of teachers. 

The purpose of this study is to trace briefly the history 
of the summer school as an educational movement in the 
United States ; to compare the work of the summer school 
with that of the regular year ; to point out the inherent 
strength and weakness of the average summer school; to 
estimate in a more or less quantitative way what contri- 
bution is being made by the summer school toward the 
training of teachers ; and, finally, to offer such suggestions 
as seem consistent with present facts and tendencies. 

The scope of the study is confined to summer schools of 
the United States. Furthermore, no attempt is made to 
study all summer schools, but only such a number and of 
such standard as will best represent their typical work in 
this country. 

All data were obtained from the following sources: 

1. Catalogs and announcements of courses of study of some 

of the earliest summer schools in the United States. 

2. United States Commissioner of Education, Report of 

1917. 

3. Summer catalogs and regular catalogs of a representa- 

tive number of state normal schools and universities 
in different sections of the United States. 

4. A questionnaire was sent to 50 universities and 150 

state normal schools. It embodied the following top- 
ics and questions: 



1 



) Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

ATTENDANCE 

1. The number of students who enrolled with you for the 

full summer session of 1916 (this term preferred be- 
cause of the war; but if more convenient, give any 
other recent session) : Men, ; women, 

2. Number who enrolled for only part of the session: 

Men, ; women, 

3. Number working for degree or diploma, 

4. Number receiving a degree or a diploma for summer 

work only, 

5. Number receiving a degree for summer work and reg- 

ular work, 

6. Number of teachers enrolled: College teachers, ; 

high-school teachers, ; elementary-school teach- 
ers, ; principals, ; supervisors, ; 

superintendents, ; rural-school teachers, 

How many of those teachers were working for a de- 
gree? 

7. Students not expecting to teach, 

8. Average number in classes during the summer, ; 

during regular year, 

FACULTY 

1. Per cent of regular faculty that teach during the sum- 

mer, 

2. Per cent of faculty that teach all the year round, 

3. Number of hours' teaching per week: (a) Regular 

session, ; (b) summer session, 

MISCELLANEOUS 

1. Do you now have the four-quarter plan? 

2. If not, do you favor such plan? 

3. Did you go on the four-quarter plan as a result of the 

war? 

4. Or are you likely to do so on account of the war? 

5. How many hours of practice teaching do you offer dur- 

ing the summer? 

6. Briefly, what is the nature of such teaching? 



Compare in a few words laboratory work of the sum- 
mer and of the regular year: 
(a) As to quality. 



Introduction 7 
(b) As to amount. 

8. In general, compare the merits of your summer-school 

work with that of the regular year. 

9. How much did you spend per student for the session 

here referred to? 

10. Do you have the cycle plan? If so, in what 

subjects? 

11. Briefly compare research work during the summer and 

during the regular year. 



The fragmentary way in which catalogs are usually com- 
piled and the incomplete answers to the questionnaire sub- 
ject the study to the just criticism of inexactness, but an 
attempt has been made to refrain from inferences and con- 
clusions that are not in the main substantiated by fact. 

If this investigation serves merely to direct attentiorT- 
more fully to the merits, weaknesses, and future possibili- 
ties of the summer-school movement in America, the au- 
thor will be fully compensated for all effort expended, and 
his most sanguine expectations will have been fully real- 
ized. 



CHAPTER II 
HISTORY OF SUMMER SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES 

A General Survey 

It has been said that summer schools are spontaneous in 
their origin and came about for the purpose of satisfying 
local demands.! Such an assertion is far from an adequate 
explanation of the existence of summer schools, for their 
cause lies deeper than this. It is true that they began in 
certain localities of the United States and for certain re- 
stricted purposes; but the real foundation of the summer 
school is to be found in the broader, more progressive spirit 
that characterized education in this country after the Civil 
War.2 Just as commercial activities expanded into new 
fields, took on new aspects, and pursued more economical 
methods; just as agriculture was no longer expressed by 
The Man With the Hoe, but had become a real business, 
demanding business methods; just as religion took on a 
more liberal and rational attitude toward life, so did so- 
ciety begin to awaken and look askance at any educational 
scheme that failed to provide facilities somewhat commen- 
surate with the demands of life. The summer school, like 
most salutary innovations, was rooted in an economic de- 
mand, supplemented by the ambition of the American 
school-teacher for more thoro preparation and the desire, 
of the American public for better schools for their children. 

It is almost a truism that however traditional any edu- 
cational scheme may have become, it ultimately yields to 
popular demand and becomes the fountain source from 
which issue the elements for improvement in all lines of 
human endeavor. In other words, education finally yields 
to the behests of economic, social, and political changes. 
Since the school-teacher is expected to assume leadership 
in progress and achievement, it is, then, no wonder that 
new plans, new instruments, new facilities must be pro- 
vided for his training. Herein lies the explanation of the 
summer school. If we trace the rise of any summer school 
in any field of knowledge, we shall find that one of the pri- 
mary and impelling motives for its organization was the 
better training of teachers. In view of the foregoing facts, 
we shall trace briefly step by step the history of the summer 
school as an educational movement, ever emphasizing and 



' Report of Com. of Ed., 1891-92 : 894. 

^Bogart: Economic History of the United States. 



■MUNI 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 9 

keeping in mind its importance as a factor in improving 
teachers. It will be found that these steps overlap each 
other and by no means stand out as successive chronolog- 
ical phases of development. However, we hope to discover 
whether the movement is continuous and evolutionary or 
is a mere educational fad satisfying temporary demands. 

Classification of Summer Schools 

That the summer school is truly American and a neces- 
sary concomitant of American life is evident in that the 
first schools were indigenous to the New World demands 
and are embraced in the last half century. In the course 
of development, the summer school has kept pace with and 
remained parallel to the other demands of life. There- 
fore, the curricula have conformed to many demands of 
life training. To classify them technically according to 
their diverse functions and shades of procedure would be 
neither interesting nor profitable here, but for our purposes 
we shall use the three following classes : 

1. Scientific laboratories for teachers and students. 

2. Schools without laboratories and giving instruction 
in but one field or study. 

3. Schools giving instruction in more than one field or 
study. 

I shall trace briefly the history of each class and point 
out so far as possible its significance in the growth and 
development toward the present elaborate summer session 
now in vogue thruout the country. 

1. Scientific Laboratories for Teachers and Students 

Beginnings 

About fifty years ago college professors of science con- 
ceived the idea that summer affords an opportunity for 
nature study as does no other season of the year. The first 
to act upon this idea were a few professors and students 
from Harvard University, who in 1869 made a trip to the 
Rocky Mountains for the purpose of studying geological 
formations. During the next few years similar expedi- 
tions to the West were made by Yale professors and stu- 
dents, who stored their minds with concrete facts concern- 
ing mineralogy and enriched the museum of natural history 
at New Haven with large and valuable collections of min- 
eral and rock. The idea gained importance until it became 
a common practice for the leading colleges of the country 
to be represented from year to year in trips to the West 
and other sections of the country. These trips served as 



r 



10 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

the forerunner of more extended scientific first-hand study 
during the summer. The biologist as well as the geologist 
found the summer season essentially suited to an intimate 
concrete study of real life. 

The Seaside Laboratory on Penikese Island^ 

The first scientific summer school in America was an- 
nounced in 1872 by the famous scholar and naturalist, 
Louis Agassiz. The session was held at Nantucket, on 
Penikese Island, about twenty-five miles southeast of New- 
port, R. I. The announcement containing an outline of 
the course of study occupied a single quarto page of printed 
matter. The program was "chiefly designed for teachers 
who propose to introduce the study of zoology into their 
schools and for students preparing to become teachers." 
The following topics, with the names of instructors, taken 
from the report of the school, will indicate the nature and 
scope of the work and the personnel of the faculty : 

"Zoology in General and Embryology of the Vertebrates," 
by L. Agassiz, Director of the Museum. 

"The Extinct Animals of Past Ages Compared with 
Those Now Living and the Methods of Identifying Them," 
by N. S. Shaler, Professor of Paleontology in the Law- 
rence Scientific School. 

"Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Verte- 
brates," by Dr. B. G. Wilder, Professor of Anatomy and 
Physiology in Cornell University. 

"The Animals and Plants Living in Deep Waters," by 
L. F. de Pourtales, Assistant in United States Coast Survey. 

"Embryology of the Radiates," by A. Agassiz, Assistant 
in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 

"On Fisheries and Their Management," by Prof. Spen- 
cer F. Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution. 

"On Fish Breeding," by Theodore Lyman, Assistant in 
the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 

"Chemistry of Feeding and Breathing," by W. Gibbs, 
Professor of Physics in Harvard University. 

"Chemistry of the Sea and Air," by James Crafts, Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in the Technological Institute, Boston. 

The project enlisted the financial support of such men 
as John Anderson and others, of New York, who gener- 
ously bestowed Penikese Island as a location, $50,000 in 
money for other expenses, a yacht, and other valuable prop- 
erty. A commodious building was erected, and in 1873 
forty odd students from all parts of the country were en- 



' Report of trustees of the school, 1873. 



/ 
/ 
( 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 11 

rolled. The death of Agassiz prevented the further pro- 
motion of the school, and the attempt was abandoned the 
following year. 

It will be observed from the foregoing list of subjects 
and professors that the work consisted mainly of laboratory 
research and the study of names and forms of animals, 
rather than experimental biology. But the tremendous 
importance of this school is seen when we remember that 
the several great biological schools that followed, some of 
which exist to-day, are its direct outgrowth. This sum- 
mer-school movement was readily followed by Harvard, 
under the leadership of Dr. Asa Gray, who founded a 
school of botany in 1874. 

We must here emphasize the important fact that the 
Penikese school was attended largely by teachers who as- 
pired to make more thoro preparation for their class work. 

The Zoological Lahoratory of Johns Hopkins University'^ 

The spirit which actuated the founding of the Penikese 
school did not die with its founder. The inspiration still 
lived in the minds of such men as Dr. W. K. Brooks and 
Professors Henry and Baird, who revived the Penikese idea 
in 1878 and induced the trustees of the Johns Hopkins 
University to provide for the maintenance of a zoological 
laboratory. The enterprise was sanctioned by the United 
States Government in a substantial way by granting the 
free use of Fort Wool, located on an artificial island at 
the mouth of Hampton Roads. The location of the fort 
was especially favorable for the study of animals, since the 
ebb and flow of the tide brought strong currents of water 
containing an abundance and a great variety of the very 
best specimens of sea life. Fewer than a dozen persons 
participated in the work of the first summer, but part of 
these were school-teachers. The session lasted eight weeks, 
the courses being given in the form of laboratory research. 
The work, measured by its results, was highly successful; 
for it offered an opportunity for original research, col- 
lected material to be used in the university, gave an ac- 
quaintance with the forms of sea life, and gave additional 
knowledge of the zoology of Chesapeake Bay. Further- 
more, a number of worthy scientific papers were prepared 
and published. 

During the next year the school made special contribu- 
tions concerning the growth, nature, and development of 
the oyster. The following sessions of this laboratory were 
held at various points, mainly along the coasts of Virginia, 



' Reports of trustees of Johns Hopkins University, Circular 54. 



12 Teache?' Training in Summer Schools 

North Carolina, and Florida, until 1888, when, for lack of 
funds for maintenance, the sessions were discontinued un- 
til 1891, when the work was revived and was continued un- 
til 1903. Since that date^ several expeditions have been 
sent to the West Indies for the study of botany and zoology, 
as well as research work carried out in Jamaica and else- 
where. Since 1910 there have not been sufficient funds 
available for such work, and the men interested in zoolog- 
ical research have individually gone to other laboratories 
for summer work.^ 

It must not be forgotten that in the earlier days of the 
laboratory it contributed considerably to the improvement 
of teachers of biology, botany, and zoology.^ Moreover, it 
published from time to time the results of investigations 
until the tracts and books are numerous and furnish an 
authentic and rare source for a most interesting chapter 
in many of the textbooks on biology. The laboratory has 
also been an invaluable aid to students of Johns Hopkins 
University, the knowledge being utilized in connection with 
the regular classroom work. Up to 1910 the work of this 
school constituted a part of the regular summer work of 
Johns Hopkins University, and elementary zoology is still 
offered as a part of the summer program. 

Wood's Hole Laboratory 

In 1881, under the auspices and support of the Woman's 
Educational Association of Boston and the Boston Society 
of Natural History, a laboratory was opened at Annisquam, 
Mass. Its purpose was "to afford opportunities for the 
study and observation of the development, anatomy, and 
habits of common types of marine animals under suitable 
direction and advice."- 

The work at first was of a most elementary character, 
and the number of students averaged about twenty until 
1886, when the enterprise was wholly surrendered to the 
Woman's Educational Association, which appropriated suf- 
ficient funds to maintain the laboratory under the title of 
The Marine Biological Laboratory. 

They erected buildings at Wood's Hole, Mass., and the 
first session was held in 1888. The attendance was small, 
and the work was of such a nature as to serve as a founda- 
tion for sequential research work. The data and material 
collected were such as would contribute largely to teacher 
improvement. The aim of the school may be best shown 
by quoting the words of Dr. Whitman, the director : "Now, 



^ Personal letter from E. A. Andrews, Professor of Zoology. 
^ From circular of announcement, 1881. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 13 

the only way to keep the distributive function efficient and 
active is to unite it in proper relations with the productive 
function. The laboratory is the creative agent — the source 
of all supplies ; the school is merely the receiver and the 
distributor. Any attempt to combine the two which ig- 
nores or reverses these relations must end in disappoint- 
ment and failure." Dr. Whitman here makes it plain that 
while the laboratory furnishes the material, it is the teach- 
er's part to assimilate and diffuse this material. 

By 1891 the school had grown considerably in attend- 
ance, and the course of study had been amplified to meet 
the needs of teachers and students. The faculty included 
several of the most eminent men of the country, among 
whom may be mentioned Dr. Whitman, of Clark Univer- 
sity ; E. C. Gardener, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; 
H. C. Bumpus, Brown University ; W. M. Rankin, Prince- 
ton College; J. P. McMurrich, Clark University; W. M. 
Wheeler, Clark University; and T. H. Morgan, Johns Hop- 
kins University. In addition to this group several distin- 
guished lecturers were enlisted in the work and gave even- 
ing lectures on biological subjects of general interest. 
These lecturers represented Clark University, Harvard, 
University of Nebraska, and Princeton. 

To give some idea of the work done, we offer the follow- 
ing, quoted from the prospectus of the session of 1891: 
"In addition to the regular courses of instruction in biology, 
botany, and microscopical technique, consisting of lectures 
and laboratory work under the direct and constant super- 
vision of the instructors, there will be given two or more 
courses of lectures on special subjects. . . . For the 
completion of any considerable piece of investigation, be- 
ginners usually require from one to three full years. The 
aim is rather to make a safe beginning, which will lead to 
good results if followed up between sessions, and renewed, 
if need be, for several successive years." 

That the element of teacher training permeated the 
courses is shown by the fact that special and exclusive 
preparation was made for teachers. The prospectus said : 
"The laboratory for teachers and students will be opened 
on Wednesday, July 8, for regular courses of seven weeks. 
The number admitted to this department will be limited tc 
thirty, and preference will be given to teachers and others 
already qualified." 

The work of this school has been carried forward for the 
past twenty years with ever-increasing attendance. The 
report of 1918 showed the school to be in a prosperous con- 
dition, with a splendid reserve fund, a library of 1,654 vol- 
umes, and a directorship consisting of some of the most 



14 Teacher Tf'aining in Summer Schools 

competent men of the country. By 1915 the total attend- 
ance had reached 242 investigators, most of whom were 
teachers of various advancement and standing, represent- 
ing many of the leading colleges, universities, schools, and 
academies of the country.^ The school has borne fruition 
beyond the most sanguine hopes of its founders, its work 
is nation-wide, and it has long since assumed its place 
among the great educational agencies of this century. 

Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor^ 

In 1890 the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences be- 
came the sponsor for a laboratory that would offer a wider 
field for the study of marine life than any other school had 
yet offered. The school was located at Cold Spring Harbor, 
Long Island, where both marine and fresh-water life could 
be studied. Mr. Eugene G. Blackford, one of the fish com- 
missioners of New York State, had previously established a 
fish hatchery here in 1882, Prof. Franklin W. Hooper, 
director of the Institute and a former student at Penikese 
Island, realized the advantages of Cold Spring Harbor as 
a location for a marine laboratory. He, in conjunction 
with other professors of the Institute, prevailed upon the 
trustees to establish a Biological Station, and a board of 
managers was appointed, consisting of Mr. Blackford, Mr. 
Hooper, and twenty-two other prominent citizens of New 
York City, 

Instead of confining the study to a few specimens of life, 
there were offered lectures on general biology, embracing 
many types, such as jelly fishes, star fishes, the clam, the 
snail, the oyster, the crab, the grasshopper, and the frog. 
Special instruction was given to teachers in methods of 
study and presentation; bacteriology was made a new and 
interesting feature; stereopticon studies were made by 
evening lectures; and encouragement, instruction, and op- 
portunity were given for carrying on independent investi- 
gation. 

The school has continued to flourish and grow from year 
to year, until at the present time demands are raised for 
additional accommodations, A dormitory, dining hall, and 
assembly room for women have been provided. In 1903 
the Carnegie Institution, of Washington, established here 
a Station of Experimental Evolution, designed for the study 
of heredity in animals and plants. In 1910 Mrs. E. H. 
Harriman established here the Eugenics Record Office, 
which has for its purpose the study of human heredity. 



'- Twentieth Report, 1917. 

' A pamphlet entitled New York City's Biological Reserve, 1917. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 15 

It is especially interesting to see in this school an expan- 
sion, a growth, of the summer-school movement from a 
study of special forms to a general and varied field and 
from a mere handful of professors to many ardent teach- 
ers seeking material for classroom use. 

Other Summer Schools of Science^ 

Still other scientific schools that maintain summer ses- 
sions are the Marine Biological Laboratory, Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University, at Pacific Grove, Cal. ; School of 
Mountain Field Biology, University of Colorado, at Tol- 
land, Col.; Indiana University Biological Station, at Wi- 
nona Lake ; and University of Michigan Biological Station, 
at Topinahee. These schools, one and all, are now main- 
tained primarily for teachers and for students of univer- 
sities and colleges desiring to collect research material for 
their regular courses. 

2. Schools Without Laboratory and Giving Instruc- 
tion IN But One Field or Study 

The Concord School 

The Concord summer school was the pioneer in the field 
of philosophy and literature. The purpose of the school 
was "to bring together a few of those persons who, in 
America, have pursued or desire to pursue the paths of 
speculative philosophy, to encourage these students and 
professors to communicate with each other concerning what 
they have learned and meditated, and to illustrate, by a con- 
stant reference to poetry and the higher literature, those 
ideas which philosophy presents. The first purpose of the 
school was conversation on serious topics, the lectures serv- 
ing merely as a text for discussion, while dispute and po- 
lemical debate were avoided. It sought in the discussions 
at Concord, not an absolute unity of opinion, but a general 
agreement in the manner of viewing philosophic truth and 
applying it to the problems of life."- The idea of this 
school originated in the mind of Bronson Alcott, but was 
not put in force until 1879, when the first session was held 
at the "Orchard House." Here assembled such celebrated 
men as Emerson, Professor Pierce (of Harvard), and Mrs. 
Cheney, Dr. W. T. Harris, F. D. Sanborn, and many other 
scholars of the time. The school continued for ten years, 

' Directory of Summer Schools, Bulletin No. 53, Bureau of Ed., 
and summer catalogs of the schools mentioned. 
^ Genius and Character of Emerson. 



16 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

with sessions varying from six weeks in the first term to 
two weeks in the last term. 

The work was highly speculative.^ The program in- 
cluded lectures on Christian Theism ; Speculative, Platonic, 
and Political Philosophy; the History and Moral of Art; 
Immortality, Schilling, Oracular Poetry, etc. From the 
first program to the last, however, may be discerned a grad- 
ual transition from speculative to realistic thought. The 
last program dealt with the relations of Aristotle's philos- 
ophy to that of modern times. The school rendered a tre- 
mendous service in paving the way for the interpretation 
and the application of ancient religion, government, and 
literature in the light of present-day tendencies. The 
school also stimulated investigation and thought concern- 
ing the relation of mind and matter. While the school was 
an exponent of transcendentalism and asserted the suprem- 
acy of the mind, "it must not be supposed that it was hos- 
tile to science; on the contrary, it approved and heartily 
sympathized with it in its great work, which, properly re- 
garded, it considered tributary to the highest ends of ex- 
istence."^ 

The lectures delivered in this school have been published 
under the following titles: The Genius and Q^aracter of 
Emerson, The Life and Genius of Goethe, T\e. Destiny of 
Man, The Idea of God. ^^ 

The Glenmore School^ 

As a progressive step from the Concord school came the 
Glenmore school, in the Adirondack Mountains. The pur- 
pose of the school was to study the psychology of man and 
its practical application to everyday life. Applied culture 
to common living would express the slogan of the school. 
To quote from the program : "The aim of the school, there- 
fore, is twofold— (1) scientific, (2) practical. The former 
it seeks to reach by means of lectures on the history and 
theory of the culture sciences, and by classes, conversa- 
tions, and carefully directed private study. The latter it 
endeavors to realize by encouraging its members to con- 
duct their life in accordance with the highest ascertained 
ethical laws, to strive after 'plain living and high thinking,' 
to discipline themselves in simplicity, kindness, thought- 
fulness, helpfulness, regularity, and promptness." The 
school secured the services of such men as J. Clark Murray, 



' Programs of the first years. 
' Harper's Weekly, August, 1881. 
3 Program of session of 1892. 



History of Summe?' Schools in the United States 17 

W. T. Harris, John Dewey, and Josiah Royce. While the 
Glenmore school gave little or no training directly to teach- 
ers, its programs contained an elaboration of cultural sci- 
ence and philosophy that has become an important part of 
educational training for the best teachers. Furthermore, 
the school forms a link in the development of summer 
schools that cannot be consistently omitted. 

Two other schools that followed in the wake of the Con- 
cord school were the Milwaukee Literary School, having 
for its aim free and untrammeled discussion and conver- 
sation and a study of poetry and philosophy ; and the Chi- 
cago Kindergarten Literary School, in which courses of 
lectures were given in masterpieces of literature from 
Dante, Shakespeare, and Goethe. But a school that de- 
serves more than passing mention is 

The School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth 

Thus far the schools we have examined have been rather 
far removed from the life of the people. In 1891 a new 
departure was made as to subject-matter in the summer 
school at Plymouth, Mass. The subjects dealt with the 
rise and development of our present system of industries 
and economics and the condition of the people that grew out 
of these. The work thus more nearly approached the per- 
tinent problems of living than did any of its predecessors.^ 
"The term 'applied ethics' might not carry to all minds an 
accurate or complete idea of the scope of the school. Pos- 
sibly the words 'practical sociology' would be more truly 
expressive of the character of the work that was actually 
done at this first session. The history and progress of 
mankind and of communities in matters of religious belief, 
moral doctrine and practice, and economic life and welfare 
were the general themes presented and discussed in many 
topics and phases. "- 

The following topics, with teachers' names appended, 
will give a definite conception of the nature of the work 
and the class of instructors : 

"Economics and Its History," Prof. H. C. Adams, Uni- 
versity of Michigan. 

"Crowding of Cities, Pauperism, Etc.," Mr. Albert Shaw. 

"Socialism," President Andrews, of Brown University. 

"Cooperation," Professor Taussig, of Harvard. 

"Factory Legislation," Carroll D. Wright, United States 
Commissioner of Labor. 



^ Announcement of the school, 1891. 
" Review of Reviews, September, 1891. 



18 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

"History of Religions," Professors Toy, of Harvard; 
Bloomfield, of Johns Hopkins; Jastrow, of University of 
Pennsylvania; and others. 

Other living topics were moral instruction of children, 
prison evils and reforms, charity in cities, and humane 
treatment of animals.^ 

The first session lasted six weeks and enrolled more than 
200 students, of whom more than 40 were teachers. The 
next year the school was continued, with a program similar 
to that of 1891. This may be considered one of the pioneer 
schools in the study of economics. While the school did 
not become of a permanent character, yet it did much to- 
ward broadening the teachers' vision and bringing them 
into more intimate relation with the life of the people and 
the problems of society. 

School of Languages at Amherst 

An obvious and long step in the expansion of the summer- 
school movement is seen in the Amherst School of Lan- 
guages. It opened in 1877, but continued only a few 
years. The school was intended largely for the training 
of teachers, especially those of foreign languages. The 
work was also adapted to the needs of students desiring to 
make up deficiencies in languages or wishing to begin the 
study of languages. The average length of the term was 
five weeks, and the program provided, besides the class 
work, a medley of gymnastics, lectures, picnics, and excur- 
sions to places of interest. By 1892 the curriculum in- 
cluded, in addition to modern and ancient languages, Eng- 
lish literature, including Anglo-Saxon and early English, 
chemistry, art, physical education, and mathematics. 
With the rapid rise of summer schools in colleges, univer- 
sities, and normal schools, the necessity for this school no 
longer existed, and its work was gradually absorbed by 
other schools. 

The Sauveur Summer School of Languages 

In 1883 Dr. Sauveur, the original founder of the Am- 
herst school, resigned from the work there and founded a 
school of languages at Burlington, Vt. In reality this 
school was only a resumption of the former work at Am- 
herst. With the exception of the two sessions of 1886 and 
1887, the terms were held successively at Burlington. Up 
to 1890 the average attendance was about 200. Several 
thousand students from different parts of the country at- 

^ Program of first session of the school. 



IMJMUlfllil 



History of Summer Schools in the United . States 19 

tended this school, more than half of whom were teachers. 
The school was designed for the exclusive study of ancient 
and modern languages, including an English department 
comprising grammar, literature, and rhetoric. Dr. Sau- 
veur was one of the first professors to introduce and pro- 
mote the direct method of language teaching. This method 
was at the time a great fad, but the novelty gradually dis- 
appeared, and with it the school that had nurtured it. 

Schools of Music, Oratory, and Ar-t 

One of the foremost normal music schools for teachers 
was that of Lexington, Mass., founded by Mr. Hosea E. 
Holt, who was a supervisor of music in the public schools 
of Boston for more than thirty years. Mr. Holt was deeply 
interested in the principles of teaching as applied to music. 
In cooperation with Mr. John W. Tufts, of Boston, he 
planned and executed a series of music books called the 
"Normal Music Course." He was, therefore, eminently 
qualified to found a school of music for teachers. The 
Lexington school continued in existence until the death of 
Mr. Holt in 1898. 

The students attending came from different parts of the 
Union, and the number in the 90's reached the hundred 
mark, varying from that to 150 until the school closed. ^ 
The school is significant to our discussion here, because it 
was strictly a normal school and one of the first to be de- 
voted exclusively to the training of teachers of music. 
Other schools- of this nature now holding summer sessions 
are the American Conservatory of Music, Chicago ; Chicago 
Musical College; Columbia School of Music; Chicago Sum- 
mer Normal School of Music; Peabody Conservatory of 
Music, Baltimore ; Institute of Music Pedagogy, Northamp- 
ton, Mass. ; Detroit Conservatory of Music ; and Forest 
Park College School of Music, St. Louis. Most of the 
schools thruout the country now have summer schools of 
music, forming a distinct department of their summer- 
school -curriculum. 

One of the first and most important schools of oratory 
was that founded by Dr. Curry at Martha's Vineyard, 
whose first session was held in 1881. Sessions have been 
held at many places, with headquarters at Boston. A sur- 
prising number of people have been in attendance, including 
lawyers, teachers, politicians, and many others. Some of 
the terms have been held in connection with leading uni- 



' From a personal letter to the author from Mrs. Ada H. Rowse, 
daughter of Mr. Holt. 

' Directory of Summer Schools, Bureau of Ed., Bulletin 53, 1917. 



20 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

versities of the country, such as Harvard, the University 
of Chicago, the University of Vermont, New York Univer- 
sity, University of Washing-ton, Wesley College, and the 
University of Minnesota. Most of the terms are held un- 
der the auspices of the school itself at Boston; Asheville, 
N. C. ; Monteagle, Tenn. ; Newport, R. I. ; Plymouth, Mass. ; 
Lancaster, Mass. ; Chicago ; Eureka Springs, Ark. ; and 
Houston, Texas. 

The average attendance is limited to thirty students on 
account of the individual work that is done. The terms 
require four hours' work a day in different courses, such as 
vocal training, vocal expression, vocal interpretation of lit- 
erature, English, including Shakespeare, Tennyson, and 
Browning, and extemporaneous speaking and public read- 
ing.i 

Other schools of this group are the Emerson College of 
Oratory, Boston, and the Minneapolis School of Art, Mu- 
sic, and Oratory. In addition to the work done in these 
schools of oratory and expression, many of the state univer- 
sities and normal schools maintain departments of oratory 
during the summer in charge of expert professors and 
trainers. 

From time to time summer schools of art for the train- 
ing of teachers have been established in the United States. 
The most noted among these are the California School of 
Arts and Crafts, Berkeley; Los Angeles School of Art and 
Design ; California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco ; 
Applied Arts Summer School and the Art Institute, both 
in Chicago ; Martha's Vineyard School of Art, at Vineyard 
Haven; School of Fine Arts, Detroit; Minneapolis School 
of Art ; Art Students' League, New York ; New York School 
of Fine and Applied Art; Summer School of Landscape 
Painting, New York; Art Academy of Cincinnati; and 
Darby School of Painting, at Fort Washington. There are 
also art departments in connection with the regular sum- 
mer sessions of the various schools thruout the country. 

An examination of the catalogs of these schools reveals 
the fact that one of the primary functions of the summer 
sessions is the training of teachers. 

3. Schools With and Without Laboratories and Giv- 
ing Instruction in More Than One Field or Subject 
We have seen how the summer school began with a study 
of special topics in the fields of science and gradually ex- 
panded into fields of art, literature, philosophy, psychology, 
economics, pedagogy, and religion, each studied as one sub- 



From a personal letter to the author from Dr. Curry. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 21 

ject. We shall now trace the movement a little farther 
and see how it has been generalized so as to include many 
studies in the same school. 



Chautauqua 

To the influence of the Chautauqua must be attributed 
much credit for popularizing the summer school. Thru 
this instrumentality, educational work during the sum- 
mer was brought into more intimate and vital touch with 
the demands of the people. Thru the Chautauqua's com- 
prehensive and liberalizing organization, educative and 
recreative agencies combined were brought right to the 
door of thousands of people during the summer months. 
This class of schools aided in originating and fostering the 
ideas out of which have grown the present summer schools 
for the training of teachers. It was by no means the only 
force that gave impetus to teacher training during the sum- 
mer months, but, in justice to the movement, we must say 
that it was one of the prime factors toward bringing about 
our present system. 

The work of the Chautauqua was at first religious in both 
purpose and scope. In 1874 the first assembly was held at 
Fairpoint, on Lake Chautauqua, in New York. While the 
early programs consisted mainly of lectures on practical 
Sunday-school and Bible work, "into the religious cur- 
rent came, in successive years, more and more tributary 
streams, representing modern science and literature in 
their relations to life and everyday thought. One can dis- 
tinctly trace in the records of Chautauqua the beginnings 
of its modern educational tendencies, whether in pedago- 
gics, art, social science, or the higher education. "i 

While the Chautauqua thus began as a movement re- 
stricted to Sunday-school work, from year to year the field 
of subject-matter was extended until twenty years after 
its origin the Chautauqua University embraced, besides its 
religious departments, schools of language, the Chautau- 
qua teachers' retreat, literary and scientific circles, liberal 
arts, Chautauqua press, and extension and summer assem- 
blies.- By 1891 the school had a college of liberal arts, 
giving instruction in German, French, English, Latin, 
Greek, physics and chemistry, mathematics, geology, and 
history; a school of sacred literature, devoted to a study 
of the Bible and its relation to Greek, Hebrew, and As- 
syrian ; a school of physical culture ; a school of music ; 
and a department for teachers. The departments have 



^ New York Independent, September, 1888. 
' Program for session of 1891. 



22 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



been changed from time to time to meet new conditions. 
The catalog of 1918 classifies the work under the heads of 
Academic Courses, which include language and literature, 
mathematics and science, psychology and pedagogy, his- 
tory and social science; and Professional Courses, which 
include library training, home economics, music, arts and 
crafts, practical arts, expression, physical education, health 
and self-expression. Supplementing the regular courses, 
there are offered many educational activities, all carefully 
planned for teacher training. The following are the pro- 
grams for 18911 and 1918 1^ 



Program for 1891 

Psychology, pedagogics, and the 
art of teaching. 

Elementary science. 

Numbers. 

Structural geography. Sand and 
putty modeling, painting and 
blackboard lessons. 

Relations of studies to primary 
teaching. 

Physical development. 

Experimental science, chemistry, 
and physics. 

Historical English Grammar and 
Shakespeare. 

Penmanship. 

Normal instruction in Sloyd and 
kindergarten. 

Lectures by Dr. Harris, Mr. Bar- 
deen, Mr. Dewey, Colonel Par- 
ker, and others. 



Program for 1918 
Education, 14 courses. 

Science, 14 courses. 
Mathematics, 4 courses. 
Arts and Crafts, 21 courses. 

Home economics, 8 courses. 

Methods, in all subjects. 
English, 11 courses. 

Modern languages, 16 courses. 

Classical languages, 6 courses. 

History and social science, 3 
courses. 

Library training. 
Music, 15 courses. 
Practical arts, 12 courses. 
Expression, 8 courses. 
Physical education, 3 courses. 
Red, Cross, 4 courses. 
Military training. 

The last session enrolled more than 3,000 students, the 
majority of whom are teachers. In many cases the work 
done at Chautauqua under well-known instructors is sub- 
sequently recognized by colleges and normal schools as 
counting toward degrees. The faculty for the session of 
1918 comprised ninety members, many of whom are in the 
highest ranks among the educators of the country .i 

' Program for session of 1891. 
' Catalog for 1918. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 23 

During the 90's the Chautauqua possessed a preeminence 
over all other summer schools and seemed destined to eclipse 
all other institutions for teacher training during the sum- 
mer months. The assembly at Chautauqua Lake was the 
central school from which emanated the plans for other 
assemblies too numerous to mention here. By 1900, how- 
ever, the Chautauqua, as a nation-wide movement for train- 
ing teachers, had largely fulfilled its mission. Only a few 
have survived the competition of other summer schools. 
One of the most illustrious of these is the Jewish Chautau- 
qua, which held its first assembly in 1896 at Atlantic City. 
It now enrolls more than 3,000 members in the United 
States and Canada. It employs many of the most eminent 
Hebrew scholars from Columbia University, Philadelphia, 
Johns Hopkins, and New York City. Its course of work 
combines pedagogy and religion. The work has been made 
of a truly national character, and also international in 
that it has received recognition at Oxford, Cambridge, and 
Edinburgh. But the majority of teachers have found it 
far more economical and convenient to attend state summer 
normal schools or summer schools in the universities and 
colleges — schools which have long since demonstrated their 
usefulness. But it must not be forgotten that the Chautau- 
qua assemblies are still attended by a vast number of people 
and make for real constructive education during the summer 
months. While the assemblies are no longer so largely at- 
tended by teachers, they will doubtless remain popular ; for, 
as no other schools have done, they combine the idea of 
study with that of recreation. 



The Martha's Vineyard Surhmer Institute^ 

A school that occupied an almost unique position in mod- 
ern education as an agency for training teachers was that 
of Martha's Vineyard, founded in 1878. The school began 
in a very humble way, with only a few professors and a 
course of study including botany, French, geology, miner- 
alogy, German, industrial drawing, Latin and Greek, micros- 
copy, pedagogics, and zoology. There was one professor 
for each department, and the first session enrolled eighty 
students. Each year changes were made in the faculty and 
the courses until 1888, when the new feature, a "school of 
methods," was added, which gave the school new life. This 
department held a session of three weeks, with only a few 
teachers in attendance, and gave instruction in methods 
in the following subjects: Arithmetic, drawing, geography, 



' Summer Institute Herald, 1882. 



24 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



history, kindergarten, language, psychology, natural science, 
pedagogy, penmanship, physical exercises, school manage- 
ment, and vocal music. 

In 1890 a department of methods for high-school teachers 
was added. That year the enrollment reached about 700, 
and included teachers of all grades, representing many 
states and countries. Each school finally included about 
fifty courses of instruction, divided into three depart- 
ments — elementary, high school, and academic. The list 
of subjects subjoined will reveal the nature and scope of 
the work : 



Elementary Course High-School Course Academic Course 



Arithmetic. 

Civil Government. 

Drawing. 

Geography and Phys- 
iology. 

Grammar, 

History. 

Kindergarten. 

Language and Pri- 
mary Work. 

Vocal Music. 

Penmanship. 

Reading. 

Elementary Science. 



Botany. 

Civics. 

English Literature. 

French and German. 

General History. 

Greek and Latin. 

Mathematics. 

Microscopy. 

Physical Culture. 

Physical and Scien- 
tific Geography. 

Rhetoric. 

Science: Physics, 
Chemistry, Miner- 
alogy, Geology, Zo- 
ology, Homemade 
Apparatus. 

Voice Culture. 



Botany. 

Drawing. 

Elocution and Oratory. 

English Literature. 

French and German. 

History and Civics. 

Latin and Greek. 

Mathematics. 

Music, Instrumental 
and Vocal. 

Ornithology and Zo- 
ology. 

Painting. 

Physical Culture. 

Sloyd. 



The foregoing list^ shows the breadth, utility, and variety 
of subject-matter which by this time began to character- 
ize the summer-school courses. It is not difficult to discern 
in this school an unmistakable tendency toward making the 
summer school a popular and efficient factor in the training 
of teachers. While the course was by no means ideal, it 
approaches that happy blending and balancing of academic 
and professional learning that is indispensable to the well- 
prepared teacher. It should be noted also that for each 
subject taught the school provided one or more instructors 
of established reputation. The professional and scientific 
instruction was given by laboratory methods, the minimum 
term was six weeks, and the class work' was interspersed 
with excursions, entertainments, evening lectures, and rec- 
reations. 



^ Announcement of session of 1890. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 25 



Summer Normal Schools 

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century the 
teachers of America held county conventions and teachers' 
associations at least once a year. These meetings lasted 
from one to two days and served as educational revivals 
which gave the teachers an opportunity for an exchange of 
ideas of method and an opportunity for social intercourse 
with each other and with the people. The work was 
largely of the informal sort, and encouraged untrammeled, 
free-for-all discussion of school problems. The meetings 
served as the chief fountain sources from which the teacher 
drew his inspiration and pedagogy for the school year.^ 

But these conventions and associations did not suffice to 
satisfy the teacher's desire for improvement and his long- 
ing for the comradeship of his fellows. The common-school 
teacher, by the very nature of his condition, isolated, re- 
stricted in environment, with but few books and no libra- 
ries, craved a richer, more varied, and more extended field 
of activity than the convention or association could offer. 
He found supplemental knowledge and partial solace in 
teachers' institutes, which had their rise about the middle 
of the century.^ Horace Mann, in his annual report of 
1844-45 as School Commissioner of Massachusetts, said: 
"Institutes originated in the state of New York in 1843, 
and they have so commended themselves to the friends of 
education that they have been held during the current sea- 
son in more than half of the counties of New York and in 
the states of Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island, and Massachusetts." By 1850 teachers' institutes 
had been held in many states of the Union. Usually the 
sessions were held for two weeks and were enthusiastically 
attended. The programs contained names of some of the 
ablest teachers and lecturers of the time. Teachers were 
formed into classes and were given instruction in those 
subjects they expected to teach, and lessons were prepared 
and recited as is done in school. The institutes thus served 
as training schools for teachers, and at a time in our his- 
tory when educational advantages were meager indeed. It 
is obvious that these institutes were the direct forerunners 
of summer schools now held in practically every state nor- 
mal school of this country. Many of the states still have 
laws- providing for county or district institutes at least 
once a year. The sessions vary from one day to two weeks, 
with an approximate average of five days. Other states- 
provide for professional schools lasting from two weeks to 



' Circular No. 2, Bureau of Ed., 1885. 
' School laws of the various states. 



26 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



nine weeks. These latter may be more appropriately des- 
ignated as summer normal schools. The conviction is 
growing that institutes have outlived their usefulness as 
teacher-training agencies, and that their work in that par- 
ticular should be surrendered to the summer school. 

Just as the institute superseded the old-time convention 
and association, so did the summer normal gradually usurp 
the function of the institute. As this transformation has 
taken place gradually and now seems to be in the last stage, 
it would be difficult to fix a date as the beginning of sum- 
mer normal schools. The teachers' institutes in some of 
the states were gradually changed both in name and in fact 
to summer normal schools. The writer well remembers 
that twenty years ago the summer sessions of two weeks, 
held in practically every county of the state of Tennessee, 
were frequently referred to as "summer normals." 

By 1890^ "summer normals" had been established in the 
majority of the states of the Union ; and by 1900 they held 
almost undisputed sway in the training of teachers, more 
especially rural teachers and other teachers who could not 
avail themselves of college or normal-school training. The 
sessions were attended by teachers of all ages and grades 
who were required by law to obtain or renew certificates. 
Moreover, we must remember that at this time the majority 
of teachers were chosen from high-school students,- with 
no professional training and with none too thoro academic 
knowledge. Not a small per cent of teachers were with- 
out even high-school training, who, by dint of study and 
struggle at home, had become familiar with the common- 
school subjects. These classes of teachers availed them- 
selves of the "summer normals," and thus had but little 
trouble in getting county certificates. It is therefore ap- 
parent that the "summer normal" occupied a conspicuous 
and important place in the training of teachers. Gradually 
the county "summer normal" gave way to the state "sum- 
mer normal," which, by statutory provision, has become a 
real part of state educational systems.^ 

During the last decade the number of summer normal 
schools has greatly decreased. This is only an indication 
of educational progress. The former sessions did not meet 
the demands of changing conditions and the rising stand- 
ards of scholarship required of teachers. Consequently, 
school laws have been so amended in many of the states 
that fewer "summer normals" are allowed. This has re- 
sulted in the abolition of the smaller county "summer nor- 



^ Records of summer normals in different states. 
^ State school laws. 



miBiiHiimM'iri 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 27 

mal" in favor of the better equipped, better taught, and 
more centralized sessions combining several counties in one 
"normal." In addition to such consolidated "county nor- 
mals" are the more elaborately organized sessions in the 
colleges, universities, and state normal schools. Texas^ 
affords an example of this. From 1900 to 1917 the num- 
ber of "summer normals" decreased 41 per cent in this 
state. Of the attendance in 1917, 87 per cent was in the 
colleges, universities, and state normal schools, indicating 
the tendency of the summer school to centralize about the 
work of reputable institutions of learning. What is true 
of Texas is to a very great extent true of the entire coun- 
try. In 1917 there were reported to the Bureau of Educa- 
tion more than 200 summer schools designated as "summer 
normals," 112 of which were held under the management of 
recognized and well-established institutions of learning.- 



Summer Sessions in State No7'mal Schools 

By the middle of the nineteenth century only a small 
number of state normal schools had been established; but 
by 1875 there were 70 in operation.- The number has in- 
creased rapidly, until to-day there are 185. With the 
growth of norrnal schools there came almost a parallel 
growth of summer sessions in these normal schools. The 
summer session, however, was for many years a mere ex- 
pediency, and required careful management and tender 
nursing before it grew into full strength and maturity. In 
the majority of the state normal schools it is now empha- 
sized as the most important and efficient part of the work. 
In others it is only in the chrysalis stage of development. 

Of the 200 summer normal schools mentioned in the pre- 
ceding topic, 94 were held in state normal schools.-^ By 
no means does this number include all the state normal 
schools that held summer sessions, for almost 40 per cent 
of these schools did not report in time to be included in 
the list. Of the 185 state normal schools in the United 
States, the writer has seen 129 catalogs for the summer 
session of 1917. The catalogs indicate that most of these 
schools pursue the same course of study during the sum- 
mer as during the regular year. The sessions last from 
four to twelve weeks, with a median term of eight weeks. 
The faculties include men and women of ripe scholarship 



' State school laws. 
" Texas State Dept. of Education, 
= Gordy, Ch. III. 

^Bulletin No. 43, Bureau of Education; also catalogs of normal 
schools, 1917. 



28 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



and broad experience. These facts show in a general way 
that the summer session is thoroly intrenched as a signifi- 
cant part of the regular work in the state normal schools. 

Summer Sessions in Colleges and Universities 

Not only did the Penikese school, founded by Agassiz, 
serve as the mother of scientific laboratories, but it also 
brought the conception of summer schools in Harvard Col- 
lege. It will be remembered that the primary aim at Pen- 
ikese was to train teachers in methods of teaching zoology 
and geology. Such instruction was open to all the teach- 
ers of Massachusetts. The plan of summer field work in 
geology and of marine work in zoology was accordingly 
projected and was made a part of the university research 
study. The success of these schools of natural science was 
by no means disappointing, and they, in turn, led to the 
establishment of other scientific courses at Harvard. Bot- 
any, physics, chemistry, physical training, French and Ger- 
man, field engineering, and medicine were successively 
added. In a few years the total attendance had reached 
almost 300, of which 150 were teachers and 38 were stu- 
dents of Harvard. Except in geology and field engineering, 
the work could not be counted toward a college degree. 
These schools subsequently passed under the absolute man- 
agement and control of the university and became an essen- 
tial part of the university program. Thus was laid the 
nucleus of the Harvard summ.er school of to-day. Year 
by year other subjects were added until the summer cur- 
riculum included a rich variety of courses, and the students 
in attendance were given all the advantages the university 
could offer.i 

Almost contemporary with the Harvard movement, sum- 
mer sessions were held in the University of Virginia,- the 
initial courses being confined to the law department. The 
class grew in number for a quarter of a century, averaged 
two months in duration, and finally became a part of the 
regular instruction in the School of Law of the university. 
In 1877 the summer school of chemistry was added, the 
instruction being purely of an individual nature. Courses 
in mathematics, engineering, medicine, and biology rapidly 
followed. Ultimately, a Summer School of Education was 
organized, which proved to be a veritable Mecca for teach- 
ers of the South. The attendance has grown with leaps 
and bounds until the summer school ranks with those of 
the foremost institutions of the country. Full university 



^ Catalogs of Harvard summer schools. 
" Catalogs of Virginia University. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 29 

credit is offered in many schools and courses, the summer 
term admits both men and women, is standardized to six 
weeks, and employs in the faculty some of the most emi- 
nent professors in the world. ^ The session of 1916- en- 
rolled 302 men and 1,045 women, employed 99 instructors 
and 40 lecturers, gave 21 special lectures or entertainments, 
and gave credit toward both graduate and undergraduate 
degrees. 

The University of Virginia thus launched the experiment 
of summer work in state universities. Other higher in- 
stitutions recognized its success, and ten years later Ohio 
Wesleyan College took up the work. Other colleges and 
universities rapidly followed, until by 1900 more than 
twenty were offering extensive summer courses. Most of 
these schools were state universities. In 1916 every state 
university in the United States reported a summer session, 
and, in all, sixty-three universities reported their summer 
work as regular sessions. The length of term varied from 
5 to 12 weeks, with a median for colleges and universities 
of 6.5 weeks, and the median date was found to be June 18 
to August 6. In the University of Chicago, the University 
of West Virginia, the University of Texas, Baylor Univer- 
sity, the University of Missouri, the University of Florida, 
Peabody College, and the University of the South the sum- 
mer session is considered a full quarter of the regular year's 
work. Practically all reputable colleges and universities 
now adhere to the plan of making the summer term a part 
of the regular year and of computing credits accordingly. 

This chapter would be incomplete without a brief his- 
tory of the summer session at George Peabody College, 
Nashville, Tenn. The first announcement of summer 
courses was made in 1902, when the college was still a part 
of the University of Nashville. The session lasted six 
weeks — June 16 to July 25. The course of study comprised 
philosophy and pedagogy, mathematics, science, English, 
Latin, history, and lectures. The latter were described as 
"a number of lectures on timely subjects, given by members 
of the faculty and others." 

Credits toward degrees were given in all regular college 
courses. The L.I. Degree granted a life certificate to teach 
in the states of Tennessee, Texas, North Carolina, West 
Virginia, and California. An arrangement was made by 
President Porter with State Superintendent Fitzpatrick 
whereby the completion of certain summer courses was 



^ Summer catalog, 1916. 

- Report Com. of Ed., 1917, Vol. II. 



wmmmmimmfirn- 



30 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

counted toward a primary state certificate good for one 
year, and other courses were counted toward a secondary 
certificate good for four years. No fee or tuition was 
charged, and railway rates were one fare for the round 
trip from all points in the South. Teachers constituted 
almost the entire attendance, and the work accomplished 
was of the highest merit. 

The catalog for 1903 contained this statement : "It is the 
confident expectation that this work will be extended and 
modified from year to year so as to meet the needs of that 
large class of teachers and students who desire an oppor- 
tunity for improvement during vacation. Provision will 
be made for all that interests teachers now in the field, for 
helping those who intend to enter the profession, and for 
doing the usual work of the college. The courses offered for 
the present summer are consequently intended to serve all 
these ends. The entire college equipment will be made 
available — buildings, libraries, laboratories, and a force 
from the regular faculty supplemented by competent out- 
side assistance." The truth of the above was fully realized. 
The term lasted eight weeks, with an enrollment of 151 
earnest, aspiring teachers from all parts of the South. By 
1904 the courses had been arranged to meet the needs of 
all classes, from primary teachers to college teachers and 
city superintendents and principals. 

In 1908 the college was organized on the four-quarter 
plan, with the summer session counted as a full quarter. 
By this time the attendance had reached 376, and the 
courses had been revised and recast so as to introduce new 
subjects and maintain a wholesome expansion and growth. 
Upon the satisfactory completion of summer work, credits 
were given toward three degrees. 

By the summer of 1914 the college had been transferred 
to its new campus on Hillsboro Pike. The faculty had been 
reorganized, and the course of study had been thoroly re- 
vised to meet modern conditions. Notwithstanding the in- 
complete condition of the buildings and improvised make- 
shifts for many conveniences, the enrollment reached 1,108, 
consisting of teachers and students from twenty-nine states. 
In 1916 the work embraced more than 200 courses, cover- 
ing a rich and varied field in education, history and social 
sciences, English, science, geography, mathematics, manual 
and fine arts, home economics, music, physical education, 
foreign languages, and special courses. There was an en- 
rollment of 1,484 students in the college and about 150 chil- 
dren in the Demonstration School, and the faculty num- 
bered 81 teachers chosen from the ablest in America. 



History of Summer Schools in the United States 31 

The far-reaching and beneficent influence of the summer 
session at George Peabody College can hardly be estimated. 
Organized almost exclusively for teachers, it confers a 
privilege as does no other institution of the South. Its fu- 
ture greatness can be predicted only in the light of its past 
marvelous growth and development. 

What has been said of a few colleges and universities as 
to summer-school work expresses the typical situation with 
reference to practically all colleges and universities in the 
country. To give a history of each of these would not be 
specially instructive here. The prodigious spread of the 
summer-school movement has come to include all reputable 
institutions. Every state university, almost every college, 
both public and private, besides numerous smaller schools, 
now offers teacher training during the summer months. 



\ 



The Present Status of Summer Schools 

The writer made a study of 124 normal schools and 179 
colleges and universities in the United States for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining the median length of the summer term 
of 1916.1 The findings showed the median term for nor- 
mal schools to be 8 weeks; for colleges and universities, 6.5 
weeks; and for both together, 7.25 weeks. 92 per cent 
of the 303 schools had a median term of 6 or more weeks ; 
16 per cent had a term of 8 weeks ; 8 per cent, a term of 9 
weeks; 8 per cent, a term of 10 weeks; and 9 per cent, a 
term of 12 weeks. These figures would indicate that the 
short-term summer school is being superseded by the longer 
session — a session of sufl[icient duration for students to 
accomplish definitely a measurable quantity of their educa- 
tion. A chance is given for intensive and extensive study, 
thus insuring substantial educational advancement. 

In 1916, 734 summer schools were reported to the Bu- 
reau of Education, an increase of 53 per cent since 1911. 
A considerable number holding summer sessions did not 
report ; 63 of those reporting were regular sessions of uni- 
versities, 62 of colleges, 94 of normal schools, 34 of other 
institutions, while 481 were reported as independent 
schools. The total enrollment reached about 300,000, an 
increase of 152 per cent since 1911. The enrollment in 
round numbers in some of the schools was as follows : 

Iowa State Teachers' College 2,500 

Ypsilanti State Normal School, Michigan 1,800 



^ Catalogs of summer sessions and Bulletin No. 43, Bureau of Ed., 
1917; Bureau of Ed. Report, 1917, Vol. II. 



32 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

Peru, Neb. 800 

Emporia, Kan. 2,300 

Illinois State Normal University 2,600 

George Peabody College 1,500 

Edmund, Okla. 2,400 

All Texas Normal Schools 5,000 

Natchitoches, La. , 1,000 

All Missouri Normal Schools 6,000 

Columbia University 7,000 

University of Chicago 5,400 

The total number of teachers reported for 1916 was 17,- 
600, an increase of 121 per cent since 1911. Besides the 
instructors, there were 2,300 special lecturers. An exam- 
ination of many of the catalogs of these schools shows that 
the faculties were made up of the most learned, efficient, 
and expert teachers available. A very large per cent of 
those attending were teachers, or students who expected to 
teach. 

An interesting feature is the expense involved. The ag- 
gregate cost reported of summer schools in the United 
States for 1916 was estimated at $3,000,000, or $14.85 per 
student. A fact of importance to Southern people is that 
the South is spending only $10.22 per student, while the 
Central States are spending $16.38 per student. This is 
significant as showing that the Southern summer school is 
poorly supported financially. The amount spent per stu- 
dent by some of the schools and states is as follows: Uni- 
versity of Chicago, $80 ; Columbia University, $28 ; Uni- 
versity of Michigan, $36 ; University of Wisconsin, $20 ; 
Cornell, $27 ; University of California, $12 ; University of 
Pennsylvania, $30 ; University of Illinois, $27 ; and Uni- 
versity of Virginia, $15. Several of the state universities 
are spending annually $10,000 to $20,000. 

A careful study of the curricula of summer schools shows 
that courses in education predominate, which fact would 
justify the inference that the session is more largely at- 
tended by teachers than by students preparing for other 
vocations. While there is yet a lack of uniformity in 
courses offered in the different institutions, there is a 
discernible tendency toward standardization of the work 
required and the number of credits offered. In the col- 
leges and universities the work is more nearly an integral 
part of the regular work than it is in the normal schools. 
Yet in both schools there is an apparent effort to adj ast the 
summer courses to those of the regular year. Further- 
more, in colleges and universities there is a more even bal- 
ance between the amount of academic and professional 
work than there is in the normal schools. We are justified 



History of Summer Schools in the Uriited States 33 

in saying that in a general way the courses are meeting the 
demands for improving and training teachers as well as 
those preparing for other pursuits. ^ 

Summary 

A general survey of the summer-school movement shows 
that it is modern in its origin, having come about in re- 
sponse to an economic demand and a broader, progressive 
spirit that characterized education during the latter half 
of the nineteenth century. According to their development 
and character of work, summer schools may be classified as 
scientific schools, schools giving instruction in but one' field, 
and schools giving instruction in more than one field. 

Half a century ago Harvard University conceived the 
idea of spending a few weeks of the summer in scientific 
study and investigation. A few professors and students 
went to Colorado to make a brief study of the rocks and 
minerals of that region. The example of Harvard was 
followed by Yale, Vassar, and other colleges. Then fol- 
lowed the establishment of the first real summer school by 
Agassiz and others at Nantucket, on Penikese Island. The 
course of study was designed chiefly for teachers who 
wished to introduce zoology into their schools. From this 
movement came the establishment of other scientific schools, 
notably the Zoological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins, which 
made valuable contributions concerning the oyster and col- 
lected much information adapted to classroom instruction ; 
the Wood's Hole Laboratory, which furnished invaluable 
material to teachers for lecture and demonstration in lab- 
oratory teaching; and the laboratory at Cold Springs Har- 
bor, L. L, which offered lectures and research on general 
biology, including many types and covering a general and 
varied field. 

Following in the wake of scientific summer schools cam.e 
those giving instruction in a single field or subject. Typ- 
ical of this group were the Concord Summer School of 
Philosophy and Literature, devoted chiefly to a study of 
speculative philosophy and the interpretation of ancient 
literature in the light of present-day tendencies ; the Glen- 
more School in the Adirondacks, whose purpose was a study 
of psychology and its practical application to everyday 
life; the Milwaukee Literary School, having for its pur- 
pose free and untrammeled discussion and a study of poetry 
and philosophy ; the School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth, 
a pioneer school in the study of economical problems and a 



r 



' Catalogs of summer schools, 1916. 



mmam 



34 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



school which contributed much toward broadening and lib- 
eraUzing the teacher's vision ; the School of Languages at 
Amherst, intended for the training of teachers of foreign 
languages; the Sauveur School of Languages, attended 
largely by teachers of ancient and modern languages and 
English grammar, literature, and rhetoric. The Sauveur 
school was the first to introduce the direct method of teach- 
ing languages. Other schools of this class were the Lex- 
ington Normal Music School, which applied the principles 
of teaching to music and is significant as being one of the 
first normal schools in America; and several other schools 
of oratory, art, and music. 

The third class, or those giving instruction in more than 
one field or study, is by far the most numerous. One of 
the greatest of these in forming a historical background 
was the Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute for Teachers. 
Its program for 1891 included an extensive course not un- 
like the courses of the present summer schools. Finally 
came the Chautauqua movement, which expanded into many 
fields of education and formed one of the immediate steps 
toward crystallizing the summer school into distinct form. 
Almost simultaneous with the Chautauqua came summer 
normal schools, whose purpose was to give brief reviews 
to teachers desiring certificates. The length of term va- 
ried from a few days to a few weeks. No attempt was 
made at permanency of organization, and no motive was 
entertained other than to give reviews. The summer nor- 
mal school gradually became a part of the year's work in 
state normal schools and colleges and universities. The 
length of term has been increased sufficiently that real con- 
structive advancement and valuable research may be made 
during the summer months. The curricula have been 
highly enriched so as to include subjects covering many 
fields of endeavor; the faculties include some of the most 
learned men and women of the country ; and the attendance 
is increasing by thousands from year to year. 



CHAPTER III 

THE CURRICULA OF SUMMER SCHOOLS 

In the foregoing chapter we attempted to trace briefly 
the origin, growth, and development of the summer school 
as an educational movement. The historical facts warrant 
the conclusion that school work during the summer is no 
longer ephemeral in character. It seems to be a well- 
established, permanent adjunct of our educational system. 
There is no apparent reason for expecting its waning or 
discontinuance. Enrollments have ceased to fluctuate; but 
they show a continuous, steady growth. In other words, 
the summer school is here to stay. 

There has also come about a far more generous recog- 
nition of summer courses in fulfillment of requirements 
for certificates, diplomas, and degrees, not alone by the in- 
stitution under whose control the summer school is held, 
but also by other institutions, by state statutes, and by city 
superintendents. But we must not rush to the conclusion 
that the summer school is perfect in its organization, its 
program of studies, its coordination of courses and depart- 
ments, and the effectiveness of its work; for, like all pro- 
gressive movements, the present stage is transitory. There- 
fore, it becomes necessary to present an investigation of 
the nature, purpose, value, and extent of the courses of 
study offered during the summer and what relation they 
bear to the courses offered during the regular school year. 
Such is the purpose of this chapter. We thus hope to show 
whether or not the summer session may be justly consid- 
ered as a real part of the school year. 

To answer the inquiry intelligently involved a careful 
study of the curricula as shown by catalogs from a repre- 
sentative number of schools, supplemented with informa- 
tion from such other sources as were available. Since the 
study is made with reference somewhat to the South, more 
catalogs of Southern schools than of any other section were 
examined. These comprise the catalogs^ of fifty normal 
schools and twenty colleges and universities of the South 
and of fifteen normal schools and twenty colleges and uni- 
versities in other sections of the country. 

Plan of Study 

For purposes of this study, all subjects alike or closely 
kindred were grouped under one major heading. The 
courses adjusted themselves to the following groups: Edu- 



' Catalogs for 1916. 



36 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

cation, history and social sciences, geography,^ English, 
science, mathematics, manual and fine arts, foreign lan- 
guages, music, physical education, certificate courses, spe- 
cial courses, and review courses. The courses that could be 
appropriately placed under any heading were counted and 
assigned to the proper subject group. This was done for 
all subjects, each course being counted but once. When 
more than one school in any state were examined, the aver- 
age number^ of courses in each subject group was taken as 
fairly representing the typical number of courses in that 
group for that state. Then the total average number of 
courses in each subject group was computed for the South 
and for other sections. The same plan was pursued as to 
the number of courses in the regular year. 

In order to ascertain the nature of the courses in each 
subject, it was necessary to know the majority of charac- 
teristics used by catalogs in describing the courses. There- 
fore, all characteristics alike or very similar were grouped 
together. The qualities appearing as common in 50 per 
cent or more of the catalogs were taken as a description of 
what might be termed a representative course of study. 
The extent, method, and content of each course could thus 
be fairly well determined. While the methods of arrange- 
ment of subject-matter in catalogs were very diverse, we 
found a surprising degree of uniformity in description. 
The content, when analyzed and sifted, was somewhat sim- 
ilar — a difference of form rather than of meaning. With 
the foregoing principles of procedure as a guide, we shall 
present each subject group in turn, with appropriate con- 
sideration of such features as enlist our interest and at the 
same time serve the purpose of this investigation. 

That Southern schools may be compared with those of 
other sections, attention will center mainly on those sub- 
jects common to the curricula of all sections. Those not 
common will be briefly discussed under another head. The 
following table shows each subject group analyzed into its 
constituent subjects, with average number of courses gjven 
in each subject during the summer session and during the 
regular year, in normal schools of the South and of other 
sections and in colleges and universities of the South and 
of other sections : 



The average to the nearest integer. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



87 



TABLE I 

Showing Average Number and Kind of Courses Given in- 
Each Subject Group 



NUMBER OF COURSES 



Normal Schools 

Other 

Subject Group South Sections 

S' R S R 
Education: 

Psychology 2 2 2 3 

Pedagogy 11 11 

History of Education 2 2 2 2 

School Management 1 1 1 2 

Child Study 11 11 

Principles of Teaching 11 11 

Principles of Education 11 11 

Educational Psychology 2 2 12 

Method 2 1 2 3 

Method Subjects 5 4 4 3 

Administration 2 2 12 

Logic 11 11 

Ethics 

Educational Sociology 1 1 1 1 

Practice Teaching 2 2 2 2 

Total 24 22 21 25 

History and Social Sciences: 

History (all kinds) 5 8 5 7 

Civics 11 11 

Sociology 11 12 

Economics 2 4 2 5 

Total 9 14 10 15 

Mathematics: 

Arithmetic 12 2 2 

Algebra 2 2 2 3 

Geometry 2 3 2 2 

Trigonometry 12 12 

Analytics 12 12 

Calculus 12 12 

Higher Courses 1 11 

Total 8 13 10 14 

English: 

Reading and Phonics 1 1 1 1 

Expression 13 2 3 

Public Speaking 12 11 

Spelling 11 11 

Grammar 11 11 

Rhetoric and Composition 2 3 2 3 



Colleges and 
Universities 



S R 



27 39 



11 20 



9 18 



other 
Sections 

S R 



4 12 
3 6 



24 53 



5 


9 


6 67 


1 


2 


1 3 


1 


3 


3 5 


4 


6 


7 17 



17 92 



1 





1 1 


1 


3 


1 3 


2 


4 


2 4 


1 


2 


1 2 


1 


2 


1 3 


1 


2 


2 3 


2 


5 


4 18 



12 34 















2 


4 


2 


5 


2 


3 


2 


4 














1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


4 


2 


4 



1 S^Summer Session. KrrRegular year. 



38 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



NUMBER OF COURSES 



Normal Schools 

Other 

Subject Group South Sections 

S' R S R 

English : 

Language 11 11 

Literature 4 6 5 7 

History of Literature 2 2 

Higher Courses 13 12 

Total 15 23 15 20 

Science: 

Nature Study 11 11 

Physiology and Hygiene 12 12 

Agriculture 3 7 2 6 

Biology 2 3 2 3 

Physics 12 12 

Chemistry 2 2 2 3 

Physiography and Geology... 12 12 

Higher Courses 13 14 

Total 12 22 11 23 

Geography 2 3 2 3 

Manual and Fine Arts: 

Drawing 3 4 3 4 

Penmanship 11 

Manual Training 4 7 4 10 

Domestic Science and Art__ 4 8 6 11 

Painting, Decorating, etc 2 5 4 7 

Statuary 

Total 14 25 17 32 

Music: 

Vocal 12 13 

Instrumental 3 6 3 6 

Total 4 8 4 9 

Foreign Languages: 

French 2 4 2 4 

German 2 3 3 5 

Spanish 2 4 2 4 

Latin 2 6 2 6 

Greek 

Other Languages 

Total 8 17 9 19 

Physical Education: 

Swimming 2 2 2 2 

Coaching in Athletics 13 13 

Games and Dances 12 2 3 

Total 4 7 5 8 



Colleges and 
Universities 


South 

S R 


other 

Sections 

S R 



5 9 

1 2 

2 5 



6 28 

1 3 
3 5 



15 28 



18 34 
2 4 



16 27 



1 2 

3 8 



4 10 



3 7 

3 8 
2 4 

4 10 
2 8 
1 2 



15 39 

3 4 
2 5 
2 5 



17 50 



1 








1 


3 


3 6 


3 


6 


5 21 


3 


6 


4 22 


3 


5 


4 8 


2 


4 


3 12 


1 


3 


2 10 


4 


7 


5 11 



26 91 
2 5 



2 


3 


3 4 


1 


1 





5 


11 


6 11 


4 


6 


8 14 


3 


4 


5 13 


1 


2 


1 3 



23 45 

2 4 

5 15 



7 19 



12 
17 
10 
17 
11 
3 



19 70 

2 4 

3 8 
2 6 



7 14 



7 18 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



39 



NUMBER OF COURSES 



Subject Group 



Normal Schools 

Other 
South Sections 

S' R S R 



Colleges and 
Universities 

Other 
South Sections 



Special Courses: 
Total 



3 3 



Review Courses; 
Total 



.15 8 



3 4 



13 7 



S R 
2 3 

12 8 



S R 
4 4 

9 7 



TABLE II 

Summer Courses in State Normal Schools 

1. Ratio of stimmer courses to regular courses 

2. Ratio of each group to total sumr)ier courses 

Normal Schools ?"^'7r*' 

of South "t Other 

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 

of of Total of 

Regular Summer Regular 

Subject Group Courses Courses Courses 

Education 109 23 84 

History and S. S 69 8 66 

English 65 5 75 

Science o^ o rr 

Geography 67 2 66 

Mathematics 62 » '^ 

Manual and Fine Arts_- 56 15 22 

Music 50 4 55 

Foreign Languages 47 » ^' 

Physical Education 57 4 o^ 

Special Courses 100 3 lo 

Median 62 8 66 



Schools 
Sections 

Per Cent 
of Total 
Summer 
Courses 

19 

10 

14 

10 

2 

10 

15 

4 

9 

5 

3 

10 



TABLE III 

Summer Courses in Colleges and Universities 
1 Ratio of summer courses to regular courses 
2. Ratio of each group to total stimmer courses 

CoUeges and Universities CoUeges and Universities 

^ of South of Other Sections 

Percent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 

of of Total of of Total 

Regular Summer Regular Summer 

Subject Group Courses Courses Courses Courses 

Education 69 22 45 15 

History and S. S 55 9 18 11 

Mathematics 50 7 66 o 

f^S .:::::::::::::: It % \ 

Geography 50 2 40 i 

Manual and Fine Arts_- 59 13 51 i& 

Music 40 3 37 4 

Foreign Languages 38 1^ ^' 

Physical Education 50 6 d» * 

Special Courses 50 2 100 3 

Median 53 9 37 11 



40 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

Tables II and III are a summary of Table I. They show 
the percentage ratio of the average total number of sum- 
mer courses in each group to the total number of regular 
courses in the same group, and they show also the percent- 
age ratio of each group to the total summer courses in all 
groups. For example, in Table II the number of courses 
in education given during the summer represents 109 per 
cent of the number of regular courses given in the same 
subject group and 23 per cent of the total number of sum- 
mer courses in all groups. Table II is compiled for normal 
schools and Table III for colleges and universities. Table 
II presents also a comparison of the number of courses in 
normal schools of the South and in other sections, and Ta- 
ble III presents the same comparison as to colleges and 
universities of the South and of other sections. 

What the Tables Disclose 

In the first place, a considerable lack of uniformity in 
the number of courses in each group is evident. Whether 
this lack is a true expression of the relative importance of 
the groups, we cannot say. In some schools it seems but 
fair to conclude that it is not. As between sections, there 
is a tendency toward uniformity in the ratio of the num- 
ber of summer courses in each group to the total in all 
groups. (Table II, columns 2 and 4.) There is a like uni- 
formity in the ratio of summer courses to regular courses. 
(Table II, columns 1 and 3.) A comparison of columns 2 
and 4, Table III, reveals no great disparity, while columns 
1 and 3 show but little likeness. 

In the second place, the tables reveal the relative empha- 
sis that is placed upon the education group. In both groups 
of normal schools this subject stands highest. Other 
groups with higher percentage ratios are English, science, 
and manual and fine arts. It is evident also that relatively 
far more emphasis is placed upon education in both groups 
of normal schools and in colleges and universities of the 
South than in colleges and universities of other sections. 
This is perhaps as it should be ; for it is safe to assume that 
the principal attendance upon normal schools is by teachers 
whose courses are mainly in the department of education. 
It would be interesting to know whether such an assump- 
tion could be made, concerning the colleges and universities 
of the South — in other words, whether or not teachers con- 
stitute a larger per cent of the attendance in the colleges 
and universities of the South than they do in the colleges 
and universities of other sections. If such is true, then is 
the South justified in centering attention during the sum- 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



41 



mer upon courses in education? This may be answered in 
terms of another question : Do the departments of educa- 
tion offer a field sufficiently rich to justify teachers' tak- 
ing more work in this field than in any other? We merely 
raise the question, without attempting its settlement here. 

In the third place, in both groups of normal schools and 
in the colleges and universities of the South there is shown 
to be a decidedly disproportionate number of courses given 
during the summer as compared to the regular year. Ta- 
ble II shows the median ratio of summer courses to regu- 
lar courses as 62 per cent and 66 per cent for the two re- 
spective groups of normal schools, and Table III shows 
that 53 per cent and 37 per cent are the corresponding 
medians for colleges and universities. Just what this me- 
dian should be we have no way of determining, but doubt- 
less it should not exceed 40 per cent. 

Finally, the tables summarily present a comparison of 
summer work in the normal schools with that in the col- 
leges and universities. The facts concerning both groups 
of normal schools and colleges and universities of the South 
are substantially the same. The same subject groups pre- 
dominate, with the exception that foreign languages be- 
come an added important group in colleges and universi- 
ties. But the one and only material difference is that the 
ratio of summer courses to regular courses is much smaller 
in colleges and universities. There is also more uniform- 
ity in this ratio. In colleges and universities other than 
Southern the ratio of summer courses to regular courses 
seems more nearly ideal than in any other group of schools. 
The median is 37 per cent, with no group, barring special 
courses, higher than 51 per cent. This fact tends to show 
that these schools have related the summer courses more 
closely to the regular courses than have the other groups of 
schools. It should be noted also that there is not such a 
marked disparity between the attention given to other sub- 
jects, thus justifying the inference that these schools are 
not so largely attended by teachers as are the other groups 
of schools. 

Description of Courses 

That a comparison may be made between the summer 
courses and the regular courses, it is deemed unnecessary to 
give a description of both, since descriptions given in the 
summer catalogs are, as a rule, identical with those given 
in the regular catalogs. Where significant differences oc- 
cur, they will be given from time to time such consideration 
as they merit. 



mm. 



42 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

The terms "two-year schools" and "four-year schools" 
refer to those institutions requiring for diploma or degree 
two years and four years, respectively, above high school. 

Education 

To say just what subjects should be included in this group 
may seem somewhat arbitrary, for it is a difficult matter 
to find any study in any field that does not have a more or 
less intimate relation to education when considered as a 
special topic or element in civilization. But for compara- 
tive purposes the foregoing subjects have been chosen as 
those which best represent a consensus of customary classi- 
fication in the majority of catalogs. It must be noted that 
in many of the schools, especially the universities and col- 
leges, it is not unusual to find one or more courses in m^ny 
subjects organized as "teachers' courses" and offered dur- 
ing both summer and the regular year. It was impractica- 
ble to include these courses under education, but they will 
be considered in connection with the groups in which they 
are found. 

Psychology. — The work in this subject, in general, is 
divided into two parts. General Psychology and Educa- 
tional Psychology. The aim of the first is to acquaint the 
student with the most important fundamental facts of hu- 
man behavior and to give the student a general idea of 
the phenomena by which we adjust ourselves to our envi- 
ronment. The physiology of the nervous system and all 
the sense organs is briefly studied in their relation to men- 
tal acts. The most important topics studied are instincts, 
feeling, attention, interest, consciousness, the theory of 
emotion, the elementary features of volition, character, and 
action. 

The course in educational psychology is closely correlated 
with education as a teaching and learning process. Em- 
phasis is placed upon the relations of mental activity to 
practical school work. The course deals with experimental 
methods as applied to educational problems. Topics in 
classroom are usually paralleled by library reading and 
laboratory experiments. Reports are required on mono- 
graphs and current literature. 

The two courses are essentially the same during the reg- 
ular year as during the summer. On the average this is 
true for all schools considered, the work being either re- 
peated or supplemented by other courses. There seem to 
be more laboratory work and more research work, in pro- 
portion, during the regular year than during the summer. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 43 

There is no distinction worth while between the nature and 
extent of the work in the colleges and universities and in 
the normal schools. 

Credits vary from 2 to 5 hours, with an average of 4 
hours. 

Pedagogy. — Most commonly an introductory course. In 
a few of the four-year schools, however, a more advanced 
course is offered ; in others the work is subdivided into two 
or more courses, with more elaborate treatment. The 
course is intended for teachers with little or no experience. 
The topics occurring most frequently are the fundamen- 
tals of teaching, teachers' qualifications, daily programs, 
recitation, assignment, study periods, examinations and 
tests, grading, promotion, reports, discipline, sanitation 
and simple rules of hygiene, school grounds, buildings, 
equipment, games and plays. During the summer these 
topics are necessarily treated rather briefly. The prevail- 
ing plan now is to infuse pedagogy into many of the con- 
tent courses as they are given, rather than to attempt an 
abstract or formal treatment of the subject. This is more 
especially true with respect to the normal schools and teach- 
ers' colleges. In other colleges and universities there are 
to be found in the academic departments one or more 
courses provided specially for teachers. 

The same course and supplementary courses are offered 
during the regular year as during the summer. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

History and Philosophy of Education. — A study of an- 
cient school systems, with special emphasis upon the Greek, 
Hebrew, and Roman, with a brief study of Oriental edu- 
cation. 

Mediaeval Schools: The decay of the Graeco-Roman 
schools, monasticism and Celtic culture in the early part 
of the middle ages. Scholasticism, the rise of universities, 
mysticism, feudalism. Crusades and Knighthood. 

Modern Schools: With a survey of the development of 
educational institutions, theories, and practices from the 
seventeenth century to the present time and their signifi- 
cance in present educational organization. A study of ed- 
ucational leaders and reformers. 

In the six-weeks terms the more popular plan is to con- 
centrate the work on a study of modern education, with a 
survey of only enough ancient and mediaeval history to 
form a background. 

In the normal schools, during the regular year, the 
courses are usually outlined for two quarters' work with 



j.immsmsmxMi'mmi/imimmitfiiii^ 



44 Teachei' Training in Summer Schools 

5 hours' credit. In the colleges and universities the work 
is expanded into more courses, with philosophy of educa- 
tion interspersed. In all schools the summer courses cor- 
respond to the work of the regular year. 
Average credit, 5 hours. 

School Management. — This course is closely allied with 
that of pedagogy. In fact, it is seldom that the two sub- 
jects are given in the same school. The course deals with 
school organization, classroom management, and the every- 
day problems of teaching ; and the relation of school to soci- 
ety and the moral and social value of school life. Some of the 
problems most commonly considered are discipline and con- 
trol, grading and promotion, backward children, various 
devices, economy of time and energy, physical conditions 
of schoolroom and children, lesson plans, programs, rela- 
tions of the outside life of the child to his school work, re- 
lation of teacher to parent, and general schoolroom tech- 
nique. 

In all schools the course is substantially the same during 
the summer as during the regular year. Work during the 
regular year is more closely correlated with practice teach- 
ing than it is during the summer. In all four-year schools 
the above course is supplemented with a higher course, and 
also with other more specific courses considering certain 
problems more in detail. 

Average credit, 3 hours. 

Child Study. — In general, this is the same as the course 
in educational psychology. The course is sometimes desig- 
nated as genetic psychology. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Principles of Teaching. — Closely akin to educational psy- 
chology. In fact, it is an application of the principles ob- 
tained from elementary psychology, and is designed to sup- 
plement this subject. The course may be described as psy- 
chology from the functional point of view as applied to the 
recitation in different branches of learning. The course 
is not usually given if child study is offered. The work 
consists of assignments from texts, recitations and reports 
on special topics, and practice or demonstration teaching. 
The course is practically the same for all schools, and the 
work of the summer the same as that of the regular year. 

Average credit, 31/2 hours. 

Principles of Education. — Supplements the principles of 
teaching. In many catalogs the course seems to include 




KM 



MMU' 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



45 



the principles of teaching. The course, however, deals 
primarily with the philosophy of education. Teaching is 
examined in the light of physiology, biology, psychology, 
and philosophy. Special emphasis is placed upon the school 
as an institution with regard to the principles of education 
in a democracy. The general method is by lectures, reci- 
tations, and reports. Same course given during regular 
year, with same credit. 

Average credit, 31/2 hours. 

Method. — There is a decided tendency to do away with 
general method, as such, and incorporate it in subject meth- 
ods and educational psychology. The aim of the course is 
to offer the fundamental principles in the teaching process 
and their relation to the learning process. The most com- 
mon topics are a study of the formal steps of the recitation, 
the problem of how to study and teaching how to study, the 
selection and arrangement of subject-matter, methods of 
securing interest, individual attention, elements of skill and 
drill, development, and appreciation. Lesson plans, obser- 
vation, and demonstration are required. There is the same 
work in all schools, and the same course is given during 
regular session as during the summer. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Method Subjects. — This group embraces methods in al- 
most the entire field of elementary and high-school sub- 
jects. Both suggestive and demonstrative method is of- 
fered in all summer courses along with the content matter. 
The most common courses are in reading, arithmetic, lan- 
guage, grammar, literature, history, geography, nature 
study, drawing, construction work, penmanship, story-tell- 
ing and child literature, dramatization, elementary science, 
folk dancing and games, physiology and hygiene, geometry, 
and library. The courses deal with the best methods of 
presenting the respective subjects, with emphasis on such 
topics as attention, motivation, organization of subject- 
matter, lesson plans, laboratory work, and observation of 
classes. 

We are justified in saying that method permeates the 
summer work to about the same degree that it does the 
work of the regular year. In fact, herein lies one of the 
fundamental differences between the summer school and 
the regular session. This is perhaps as it should be, espe- 
cially with reference to normal schools and teachers' col- 
leges, for teachers in service constitute a large per cent of 
summer attendance. 

Credit, 2 to 5 hours. 



46 Teacher T^^aining in Summer Schools 

Administration and Organization. — The course deals pri- 
marily with the work of superintendents and high-school 
principals of city school systems. The main problems pre- 
sented are the organization of school systems with refer- 
ence to school boards, superintendents, principals, and 
teachers ; curricula and their adaptation to the needs of the 
schools ; buildings and equipment ; textbooks and courses of 
study; the training, selection, improvement, and promo- 
tion of teachers; systems of grading and promotion; re- 
ports and records; standard tests; and means of raising 
school funds. The work is most frequently based upon 
conditions as revealed in recent school surveys and in school 
systems otherwise known by class and instructor. 

In the four-year schools the work is divided during the 
summer on the average into two courses, and during the 
regular year into two or more courses. This is especially 
true of the normal schools and teachers' colleges. Provi- 
sion is made for students in secondary education and ad- 
ministration, the cycle plan being applied to the summer 
program. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Educational Sociology. — A study of the origin and na- 
ture of society and the fundamental social problems. The 
units of society, including the family, the church, the state ; 
social functions of the school ; industrial organizations and 
the relation to society. A course in rural sociology is of- 
fered in many schools. During the regular year the work 
is presented in the form of social problems, and an attempt 
is made to arrive at their solution from the standpoint of 
the school. (See History and Social Sciences.) 

Average credit, 3 hours. 

Logic and Ethics. — Found mainly in four-year schools. 
Their infrequent occurrence and their limited bearing upon 
teacher training do not merit a description here. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Practice Teaching and Observation. — This work is usu- 
ally given as a part of other courses, especially method sub- 
jects, psychology, child study, and school management. 
Work for observation is occasionally given by students, but 
more frequently by summer-school instructors. There 
seems to be a meager amount of actual practice teaching 
by students during the summer. Lessons are observed and 
discussed with a view of developing general principles and 
solving both general and special problems. Individual con- 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 47 

ferences are provided, at which lesson plans and specific 
problems are considered. 

The work does not correspond to that of the regular year, 
for in most schools the classes of students attending dem- 
onstration schools are the backward trying to make up 
their work and the bright pupils who can do a half year's 
work during the summer. The work is confined mainly to 
normal schools and teachers' colleges. 

In nearly all schools the department of education occu- 
pies a very important place in the program of endeavor. 
It ramifies all departments in normal schools and teachers' 
colleges. In other universities and colleges the School of 
Education is given an eminent position alongside those of 
Law, Medicine, Theology, etc. It is not too much to say 
that during the summer it is assigned a preeminence over 
all other schools and departments. 

History and Social Sciences 

Ancient History. — A study of ancient nations only in so 
far as their political, social, and intellectual life has a bear- 
ing upon present times. Chief emphasis is placed upon 
Greece and Rome as factors in the world's progress and 
development. Two courses are given, one devoted to Greek 
history and the other to Roman, the two courses covering 
one quarter's work. The chief topics studied are the life, 
institutions, art, philosophy, literature, government, law, 
and organization of ancient nations and the contribution of 
these elements to modern times. Class work consists of re- 
ports from source material, lectures, and assignments in a 
standard text. Special economic, industrial, and political 
problems of Greek and Roman life are compared with those 
of modern times. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Mediaeval History. — A general survey of the history of 
Western Europe from the time of Theodosius to the end of 
Charlemagne's reign ; the breaking up of the Carolingian 
Empire ; the rise of feudalism and feudal institutions, with 
their effect on France, Germany, and Italy ; the church as a 
religious and secular power ; the Crusades ; the rise of new 
nations ; the Papacy ; Hundred Years' War ; the Renais- 
sance; discoveries and inventions. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Modem History. — The Reformation period ; the influence 
of the Renaissance in forwarding the movement ; the great 
religious wars ; the growth of modern nations and the rise 



48 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



of benevolent despotisms; the rise and decline of Spain 
and Bourbon France; Prussia and Russia under the Great 
Elector and Peter the Great ; the industrial revolution ; re- 
construction of Europe. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

The tendency is away from so much ancient and mediaeval 
history toward an intense study of modern history, espe- 
cially the more recent period. The six-weeks' terms usu- 
ally give about one-half of each of these courses or give the 
entire course in two sections. 

English History. — Little attempt is made to cover the 
entire field of English history, but some important period 
or epoch is selected for exhaustive study and requiring much 
supplementary reading. The periods most frequently se- 
lected are from the beginning of the Tudor line to the close 
of the Stuarts' reign, and from George III to the present, 
with special attention to the reform and expansion move- 
ments at work during the time of Victoria and continuing 
to the present. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

America7i History. — A brief review of the colonial pe- 
riod, dealing with the planting and developing of the colo- 
nies and their relations with England till the close of the 
Revolution, and the government under the Confederation ; 
the rise of nationalism ; the westward movement ; the 
growth of sectional strife; the development of the slavery 
question and state rights ; the Civil War ; the problems of 
reconstruction ; the political, social, and industrial develop- 
ment of the United States. The work is usually covered 
in one course in two-year normal schools, but the four-year 
schools divide it into two or more courses. There is al- 
ways a similar course in the regular year's work. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

In many of the colleges and universities a great variety 
of courses is given and a larger number than in the normal 
schools. The practice seems to be to break up the work 
and intensify the study of each part. This is especially 
true of the universities and colleges of other sections than 
the South. A glance at their catalogs shows a field of his- 
torical study and research embracing all phases of the 
growth and development of all peoples. A course found 
now in practically all the schools is a study of the Great 
War, including the growth of militarism in Germany, our 
relations to Europe, and the growth of internationalism. 

In all schools there are found the same or corresponding 
courses during the regular year as during the summer. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



49 



Civics. — Deals with the formation of our union and the 
basic principles of our government. A study of federal, 
state, local, and municipal government, including the forces 
and influences affecting governmental operation ; types of 
government now in vogue and the place of our country 
among them. 

In colleges and universities the work in civics is often 
supplemented by one or more courses in political economy. 
The work is sometimes made a part of the American his- 
tory course. 

In all the schools the same or similar course is given dur- 
ing the regular year. 

Average credit, 2 hours. 

Sociologij. — Most common in colleges and universities, 
but found in a few of the four-year normals. A course in 
rural sociology is given in many of the two-year normals, 
the work including such topics as community organization, 
shifting of population, tenancy, rural conveniences, how 
certain crops influence social life, rural transportation, the 
church, the school. 

Average credit, 2 hours. 

The more advanced course includes a study of the un- 
derlying principles of social science, beginning with the 
simplest personal relations and proceeding to the more 
complex forms of association ; an analysis and interpreta- 
tion of existing society, with illustration. The aim is con- 
structive rather than critical. 

Social Problems. — A study of methods of collecting and 
interpreting large bodies of facts, much of which is statis- 
tical ; forms of graphical representation. 

Other courses include community problems, poverty, pau- 
perism. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

Economics. — This field is not common to two-year nor- 
mal schools. The more elementary courses are intended 
to give a knowledge of the common economic practices and 
phases of everyday life. The purpose is to give the student 
a working vocabulary and a clear understanding of politico- 
economic questions and terms. These include economic 
wants, production, distribution, and exchange. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

The following courses are found common : Public finance, 
marketing (both farm and commercial), farm accounting, 
labor problems. Identical or supplementary courses are 



50 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

found during the regular year. Rural economics seems to 
be more emphasized in the South than in other sections and 
more during the summer than during the regular year. A 
greater variety of courses, with more intense study, is of- 
fered in colleges and universities of other sections than the 
South. 

Mathematics 

Arithmetic. — Usually given as a review course for teach- 
ers who desire a more thorough knowledge of content and 
method, and some of whom are preparing for certificate 
examinations. The work consists very largely of actual 
arithmetical performances in order properly to illustrate 
methods of presenting the subject. The following topics 
are stressed : How to acquire skill in fundamental opera- 
tions ; denominate numbers ; percentage and its important 
applications ; fractions and their relation to integers ; geo- 
metrical arithmetic ; lesson plans ; and courses of study. 

Average credit, 3 hours. 

Algebra.— The two-year normal schools restrict the work 
either to elementary or high-school algebra, with a credit of 
3 hours. The four-year schools, in addition to review 
courses, offer one or two courses in college algebra, with 
an average credit of 4 hours. Much of the summer work 
assumes the form of rapid reviews, covering as much sub- 
ject-matter during the summer as is usual during two quar- 
ters of the regular year. The summer work is character- 
ized also by much suggestive method. Usually an arrange- 
ment is made whereby the same number of credits may be 
obtained during the summer as during the regular year. 

Plane Geometry. — In the two-year normals two courses 
are given, each covering about two books of the subject. 
In the four-year schools the custom is to give only one 
course, restricted to two books or covering rapidly the en- 
tire subject. Stress is placed upon the solution and proof 
of originals. 

Average credit, 3 hours. During the regular year, 4 
hours. 

Solid Geometry. — Matter usually covered by a course in 
this subject. Attention is given to the fundamentals of the 
science; original problems and numerical exercises; prac- 
tical applications, especially of those principles leading to 
the mensuration of solids. The same work is given during 
the regular year, except the subject is covered less rapidly. 

Average credit, 3 hours. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 51 

Analytics, calculus, and higher branches of mathematics 
are usually found only in the four-year schools. The 
courses of the summer include the usual subject-matter, 
and corresponding courses are found during the regular 
year. The larger colleges and universities give a variety 
of subjects, covering much of the theory and application of 
mathematics. With the exception of occasional reviews, 
these subjects are made a part of the regular year's work. 
Courses are far more numerous in colleges and universi- 
ties other than Southern. 

Average credit, 4 hours. 

English 

Reading and Phonics. — Credit, 4 hours. 

Expression. — Credit, 2 hours. 

Public Speaking. — Credit, 2 hours. 

These courses are essentially those of method. They 
consist of a study of the elements of vocal expression and 
the steps necessary for a systematic course of reading in 
the grades ; method of teaching reading in the grades ; the 
relation of reading to work in literature; the study and 
vocal interpretation of classic selections from literature; 
dramatization of stories and plays and the dramatic in- 
stinct in children ; story-telling, including the organization 
of material for stories and actual practice in story-telling; 
declamations of short classics ; how to select, arrange, and 
present material in a way that will impress an audience; 
composition and delivery of formal and informal speeches ; 
debates and impromptu speeches. 

In some of the larger universities and colleges an exten- 
sive and varied field is offered in oratory during both the 
summer and regular year. In all schools the work of the 
regular year is more extensive than during the summer. 

Average credit, 3 hours. 

Rhetoric and Composition. — Usually divided into two 
courses, the first of which embraces the following topics: 
Making bibliographies; outlining themes; note taking; a 
study of unity, coherence, and emphasis as applied to the 
theme, the paragraph, and the sentence; methods of par- 
agraph development; how to increase one's vocabulary; 
analysis of masterpieces of English prose ; and much prac- 
tice in writing. 

The second course involves methods of making assign- 
ments, how to criticize and rate papers, oral story composi- 
tion, picture work, vocational English, cooperation and cor- 
relation, course of study, textbooks, etc. Work is carried 



52 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

on by outside reading, discussions, observation of classes, 
and the making of model lessons. Courses are similar for 
all schools and made a part of the regular work. 
Average credit, 4 hours. 

Literature. — The prevailing plan is to divide the work 
in literature according to the different types of epic, lyric, 
drama, novel, and essay, and devote appropriate time to 
each. These are studied with reference to both English 
and American writers. The following courses are typical : 
Shakespeare, with a study of the origin and development 
of the modern drama (4 hours) ; Milton (2 hours) ; Eight- 
eenth Century Poetry (4 hours) ; Victorian poets (4 
hours) ; Tennyson and Browning (4 hours) ; the English 
novel (4 hours) ; American prose (4 hours) ; contempo- 
rary drama (5 hours) ; the short story (2 hours). There 
is a decided lack of uniformity as to courses that are 
given, but from four to six of the preceding are given dur- 
ing the summer. During the regular year the tendency in 
the larger colleges and universities is to subdivide the 
courses still further and give intensive study to each au- 
thor. Moreover, a large number of additional courses are 
given, covering every phase of literature. As a whole, the 
catalogs indicate more comprehensive English work dur- 
ing the summer than during the regular year. 

Credit, 5 hours. 

History of Literature. — Two courses, the history of Eng- 
lish literature and the history of American literature, with 
a study of material illustrative of every epoch or period. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

Science 

Nature Study. — A course intended for teachers of pri- 
mary and intermediate grades. An attempt is made to fa- 
miliarize students with native plant and animal life most 
intimately related to human welfare, and especially those 
that appeal to the interest of the child. Plans of correlat- 
ing the work with other work of the grades are given. 
Actual field observation is made and considerable laboratory 
work is done. Given during both the summer and the reg- 
ular year. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

Physiology and Hygiene. — A study of the structure and 
functions of the human body, with a view of learning to 
protect the same; bodily defects and the remedies; tests 
of the eyes, ears, and throat; hygiene of the mouth; ven- 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



53 



tilating : heating ; food digestion ; disinfectants ; conta- 
gious diseases ; water supplies, sewage, and sanitation ; 
how to control and suppress epidemics. Same course given 
during regular year. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

In the larger colleges and universities a health depart- 
ment embracing many courses is maintained, and from two 
to five of these are offered during the summer. 

Agriculture. — The nature of courses varies somewhat in 
accordance with the soil and climate of different sections ; 
but the following courses are found somewhat common to 
all the schools : Elementary agriculture, dealing with soils, 
farm products, stock raising, plant diseases, grafting and 
pruning; animal husbandry — a study of feed values, bal- 
anced rations, breeds, and various types of live stock, poul- 
try, dairying, animal diseases ; horticulture — usually two 
typical courses, one devoted to garden vegetables, the other 
to methods of fruit growing. 

Credit, 2 hours during the summer, 4 hours during reg- 
ular term. 



Field Crops. — A study of all important grains and ce- 
reals ; also potatoes, legumes, and grass crops ; soil prepa- 
ration, fertilizers, seed selection, silage, harvesting, stor- 
ing, etc. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

In many of the four-year schools the department of ag- 
riculture embraces a rich field of subjects, offering instruc- 
tion in practically all matters pertaining to farming as a 
profession. A first-hand study is made of plants, animals, 
soils, etc. Much laboratory experiment is required. The 
work of the summer seems to be more intensive than dur- 
ing the regular year. 

Biology. — Two courses are typical. One is devoted to 
general zoology, in which a study is made of the structure 
and history of the common forms of life, including the 
earthworm, crawfish, starfish, locust, mussel, crabs, cen- 
tipedes, spiders, and insects; a brief study of protozoa; 
flat worms; round worms. Laboratory and field work is 
emphasized. The economic relation of biology is given con- 
siderable attention. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

Another course is devoted to plant biology. A study of 
pollination and fertilization ; structure and functions of 
root, stem, flower, leaf, and fruit ; the collection and classi- 



54 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

fication of plants ; plant societies ; an introduction to plant 
physiology, observing by laboratory method germination, 
respiration, tropism, etc. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

The same or supplementary courses are given during the 
regular year, with laboratory. The laboratory work in 
biology is far more extensive during the summer than dur- 
ing the regular year. 

Physics. — A general course in physics, covering the sub- 
jects of mechanics and properties of matter, presented with 
lectures and demonstration exercises and problems; heat, 
electricity, sound, and light, with about twenty laboratory 
experiments. In the two-year normal schools this course 
includes about one-half the above topics, while the four-year 
schools tend to concentrate on an exhaustive study of two 
or three topics. Courses correspond to regular year's work. 
Three hours a week given to lectures and two hours to lab- 
oratory. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

There is no marked difference in the nature of the work 
in the different classes of schools, except that the colleges 
and universities give more courses and more elaborate 
training in their application. In the regular year the 
courses are more drawn out, and include a more compre- 
hensive study of both theoretical and applied physics. In 
the summer session much time is given incidentally to 
methods of presentation. 

Chemistry. — A course in general chemistry, dealing with 
simple chemical changes, elements and compounds, equa- 
tions, acids and bases, equivalents, reagents, simple organic 
and inorganic compounds, metals and their compounds; 
application to modern industrial processes ; methods of 
teaching incidentally stressed. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

Also a course in organic chemistry, intended mainly for 
students in home economics and agriculture. A study of 
fabrics, fuel, water, fats, proteins, minerals, and carbo- 
hydrates; bleaching, dyeing, tanning. Much laboratory 
work. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

In the larger colleges and universities both graduate and 
undergraduate courses are offered. 

Summer courses correspond with those of the regular 
year, with the same credit. 



The CuiTicula of Summe7' Schools 



55 



Physiography and Geology. — The typical course offers a 
study of the simple physical phenomena affecting climate, 
plants, animals, and soils ; physical geography as related to 
the occupations, progress, and enlightenment of mankind ; 
population as related to geography ; map construction. 

The structure of the earth and brief history of its for- 
mation ; characteristic rocks, minerals, and soils ; field 
trips, classroom exercises, and laboratory work. Summer 
work corresponds to that of the regular year. 

In the larger colleges and universities geology is divided 
into several branches, with extensive laboratory experi- 
ment. Laboratory work appears to be more extensive dur- 
ing the summer than during the regular year. 

Aside from education, science occupies first place of im- 
portance and extent in both summer and regular work. 

Geography 

Commercial Geography. — The course treats of geographic 
influence upon the production and exchange of the most 
important commodities and a study of industries as related 
to geography. 

Credit, 4 hours. 

Teaching of Geography. — A study of methods. Use of 
maps, graphs, outlines, and charts ; course of study in geog- 
raphy, lesson plans, correlation of geography with other 
subjects. These courses are given during regular year. 
In addition, the work of the regular year expands into a 
study of the geography of different sections. The work 
is not common in colleges and universities, especially those 
of the South. Commonly given as a review or method 
course during the summer. 

Credit, 2 to 4 hours. 

Manual and Fine Arts 

Drawing. — This work includes courses in public-school 
drawing, elementary perspective, lettering and poster mak- 
ing, and simple courses in design. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

Penmanship. — A study of the proper systems, forms of 
letters, and methods of teaching. 
No credit. 

Manual Training. — Includes courses in mechanical draw- 
ing, elementary and advanced bench work, wood turning, 
and pattern making. 

Credit, 3 hours. 



56 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

Domestic Science and Art. — Courses in sewing, ranging 
from the study of stitches to the more complex work of 
tailoring, including pattern making, modeling, designing; 
all problems concerning the home, such as decoration, san- 
itation, cleansing, heating, division of income, budgets ; 
cooking, including a study of foods in relation to source, 
composition, characteristics, value to body, digestion, af- 
fected by heat, cost, proper combinations. Special courses 
in canning and other demonstration work are common dur- 
ing the summer, but are not given during the regular year. 
All summer courses except these closely correspond to the 
work of the regular year. In colleges and universities 
other than the South more elaborate programs are given. 

Credit, 2 to 4 hours. 

Sketching, Painting, and Decoration. — The work usually 
begins with composition and the careful drawing of inte- 
rior and exterior scenes. This is followed with house dec- 
oration ; charcoal drawing and memory sketching ; applied 
design, including stenciling, block printing, etc. ; pictorial 
treatment of plant and animal forms in colors. In the 
two-year normal schools simple still-life drawing and com- 
mercial design seem to be the most popular courses. The 
same work is given during the regular year, with many ad- 
ditional courses. Most of the four-year schools maintain 
colleges of art in which are given instruction in all branches 
from simple drawing to oil paintings and statuary. 

Credit, 3 hours. 

Music 

Vocal Music. — A course intended to prepare teachers to 
give instruction in the various grades and offering training 
in sight reading, ear training, and dictation. Methods of 
presenting music are highly emphasized. The work of the 
regular year supplements this course with more advanced 
courses in harmony, music, literature, interpretation, etc. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

Instrumental Music. — The usual courses are given in 
piano and other stringed instruments. Band and orchestra 
are offered in many schools. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

Many of the colleges and universities have regular schools 
of music, offering a great variety of courses during the reg- 
ular year. 

Foreign Languages 

In the two-year normal schools elementary courses are 
given in spoken and written forms in French, German, and 



■■ 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



57 



Spanish. The direct method of conversation prevails. 
Much dictation is used. In addition to these courses, the 
four-year schools give more extended courses in conversa- 
tion, composition, and literature. The same courses are 
given during the regular year. 

Credit, elementary courses, 4 hours ; literature, 2 hours. 

Latin. — Studied in relation to English. The usual 
courses, beginning Latin and Caesar in the two-year schools ; 
and, in addition to these, Cicero, Virgil, Latin literature, 
Catullus, etc., in the four-year schools. 

Credit, 2 to 4 hours. 

Greek. — Xenophon's Anabasis, Homer's Iliad, Euripides, 
etc. 

Credit, 2 to 4 hours. 

The summer work is a part of the regular year's work. 
Special teachers' courses are found in all foreign language 
departments in nearly all colleges and universities. 



Physical Education 

Aside from the wholesome effects expected from the ex- 
ercise, these courses are given primarily for those who ex- 
pect to teach or who are taking special training in coaching. 
Courses are provided to meet the needs of all grades of 
teachers, men and women, from primary grades to high 
school. 

Credit, 2 hours. 

Special Courses 

These courses include special work in such subjects as 
could not be appropriately placed under the preceding sub- 
ject groups. There is lack of uniformity with reference to 
the nature of special work, but many of the schools give 
journalism, library training, and commerce. The study of 
journalism seems to be confined to the four-year schools. 
Occasionally it is listed under the English department, but 
more frequently as a separate department. The plan pur- 
sued is the preparation of articles from research material, 
and also a careful study of the technique of writing for the 
public, as well as a careful study of the mechanical side of 
press work. In some of the larger schools a periodical un- 
der the auspices of the institution serves as a medium for 
this work. 

Library training consists of the usual work in this sub- 
ject. During the summer the course is arranged to meet 
the needs of teachers, principals, and superintendents in the 



58 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



matter of equipping, arranging, and managing a school 
library. 

Many of the schools maintain a commercial department, 
in which the usual business courses are offered. Other 
schools offer only a few courses, such as penmanship, com- 
mercial geography, commercial arithmetic, shorthand, and 
typewriting, the last three being given during the summer. 

Other courses occurring less frequently are military drill. 
Red Cross, social work, photoplay, and demonstration or 
lecture courses under the departments of home economics 
and agriculture. 

Credit, 1 to 3 hours. 

Review Courses 

The practice is somewhat prevalent of offering work in 
various departments in the form of rapid reviews for those 
who are not well grounded in the subjects or who desire 
preparation on entrance requirements. This work is con- 
fined almost entirely to the two-year normal schools which 
give preparatory work during the regular year. 

Certificate Courses 

It is the custom of a number of normal schools to offer 
work that affords opportunity for preparation in those 
subjects required for certificates in the state where the in- 
stitution exists. These may or may not be review courses. 
Legal provision is made in many states whereby certifi- 
cates may^ be renewed when a certain number of credits 
have been obtained in a state normal school or other repu- 
table institution. Thus these courses may be made to co- 
incide with regular courses without loss of time to the stu- 
dent or the institution. In the larger institutions certifi- 
cate courses, as a rule, are not designated as such, but are 
absorbed by the regular work. Teachers are given the 
privilege of taking such courses as in the judgment of the 
institution will confer the greatest benefit upon them. 
Such an arrangement obtains during both the summer and 
the regular year. 

Teachers' Courses 

Aside from the extensive educational departments main- 
tained by colleges and universities during the summer, as 
well as the regular year, are those courses in the academic 
departments listed as "teachers' courses." The aim of 
such courses is to provide a combination of content and 
method work in sufficient proportion to meet the needs of 
those students who have not the time to make preparation 



""■"""^^W 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



59 



in the strictly professional subjects or are not inclined to 
do so. It also gives opportunity for those who desire to 
specialize in the teaching of certain subjects to obtain both 
the academic and professional training necessary for suc- 
cessful teaching. The following are some of the courses 
thus listed : Latin, Greek, and modern languages ; chemis- 
try, physics, and geography ; history and economics ; alge- 
bra and geometry ; and English. The same credits are al- 
lowed as for the regular academic subjects in these depart- 
ments. 

Credits Allowed 

The number of credits assigned to the different courses is 
computed on the basis of a twelve-weeks' term, the **hour" 
meaning one recitation a week during a period of twelve 
weeks. Fractions have been disregarded, and the nearest 
average integer is taken as the approximate number of 
hours' credit allowed for each subject. The following is a 
summary of results: 

Subject Hours 

Education ■-- 4 

Mathematics 3 

English 4 

Science 4 

Manual and Fine Arts 3 

Foreign Languages 2 to 4 

Geography ^^ 4 

Music 3 

Physical Education 2 

Special Courses 1 to 4 

Such certificates and review courses as coincide with a 
part of the regular program are given corresponding credit ; 
but when the work in such courses is below the regular 
standard, such credit is allowed as the courses seem to 
merit. 

It was found that most of the schools give credit for only 
as many hours as the student actually does — that is, there 
is no particular premium placed upon summer work. In a 
number of schools the six-weeks' term may count for a 
quarter's credit, the student being allowed to register in 
only half as many subjects as during the regular year, and 
being required to do double work in these subjects ; while 
students taking the full number of subjects and reciting 
the regular number of times are given half credit for the 
six-weeks' term. In the schools of eight-weeks', nine- 
weeks', or ten-weeks' term, some of them give credit for a 
full quarter's work, but the larger number prorate the work 
by hours. By increasing the number of recitations a week, 



liiiiiiiliiflii 



60 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



any term shorter than twelve weeks may thus be made the 
equivalent of a full quarter's work. 

With few exceptions, credits for summer courses are 
identical with those for the regular year. In a few schools 
some courses are condensed during the summer or consist 
of rapid reviews for which only half as much credit is al- 
lowed. 



Academic and Professional Work Compared 

But few catalogs precisely agree as to what subjects 
should be classed professional and what subjects academic. 
In view of such disagreement, we shall not presume to set 
up an arbitrary definition of these terms; but for present 
purposes let us assume that all subjects given in the de- 
partments of education are professional. It seems but fair 
to include also those courses in which method plays a sig- 
nificant role or which are given primarily for teachers and 
are listed as such, but under academic departments. This 
would include all "teachers' courses" of whatever kind. 
All other subjects may be classed as academic. Keeping 
this classification in mind, let us compare the relative 
amount of professional and academic work given during 
the summer and during the regular year. 

Such a comparison may be made both from the stand- 
point of the number of subjects and from the total average 
number of credits allowed. 

From Table I and a careful study of the catalogs the fol- 
lowing table was compiled, showing the ratio of profes- 
sional credits to total credits for summer term and the reg- 
ular year: 

Ratio of Professional Credits to Total Credits 

Summer Regular 
Term Year 

Per Cent Per Cent 

Normal schools of South 54 50 

Normal schools of other sections 53 51 

Colleges and universities of the South 26.4 9.6 

Colleges and universities of other sections 19.2 5.7 

The term "professional" as used here pertains only to 
teaching. The above results are compiled from a compar- 
ison of summer courses and regular courses in the colleges 
of arts and sciences ; colleges of medicine, law, dentistry, 
etc., are not considered. 

A glance at the table shows that professional and aca- 
demic work are just about evenly divided in the normal 
schools during both the summer and the regular year. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



61 



Since these schools exist primarily for teachers, should not 
the preponderance of work be at least of a professional na- 
ture? From many quarters the normal schools have been 
decried for giving so much professional work. The bare 
figures above show but a slight leaning to professional 
courses, when it is remembered that in many of the courses 
here designated as professional, there is perhaps, after all, 
a decided excess of content material over mere method. 
Moreover, we have come to look dubiously on any sort of 
"method" that is not permeated through and through with 
real subject-matter. It occurs to the writer that before we 
pronounce a verdict of censure upon the summer session 
in the normal schools we should deliberate carefully as to 
the function of these schools and should have firsthand, 
authentic information as to how their courses are presented. 
We should interpret the foregoing figures as auguring no 
evil to the profession of teaching. On the other hand, the 
summer session in normal schools betokens an earnest ef- 
fort to do a large share in the training of teachers. 

These figures show also that the colleges and universi- 
ties assign teacher training a very prominent place in their 
summer work as well as during the regular year. Very 
few of these institutions of reputable rank have omitted 
from their program of study an ample provision for a 
broad and liberal department of education. This depart- 
ment is given precedence over all others during the sum- 
mer session. Besides, in other departments many subjects 
are offered especially for teachers. The summer courses 
make provision for the needs of all teachers from elemen- 
tary to high school. The figures indicate also that during 
the regular year there is no tendency to minimize the im- 
portance of professional work. Teachers are trained along- 
side members of other professions, and schools of education 
are placed on the same dignified plane with those of law, 
medicine, engineering, and agriculture. 

Laboratory Work 

In the general questionnaire sent to 150 normal schools 
and 50 universities the following question was asked con- 
cerning laboratory work: 

Compare in a few words laboratory work of the summer 
and of the regular year : 

a. As to quality. 

b. As to amount. 

Answers received from 125 schools are grouped and sum- 
marized as follows : 



62 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



a. As to quality. 

103 schools reported the work as "the same." 

5 schools reported the work as "superior." 
11 schools reported the work as "inferior." 

6 schools reported the work as "adapted to the needs 

of rural teachers and teachers in small towns, but 
more practical than during regular year." 

b. As to amount. 

86 schools reported the work as "the same." 

6 schools reported "60 minutes in summer equal 90 min- 

utes regular year." 

4 schools reported "about 40 per cent of regular." 
1 school reported "depends upon students." 

13 schools reported "less." 

7 schools reported "more." 

5 schools reported "very little." 

3 schools reported work as "more intensive." 

From these replies it is seen that in a majority of the 
schools the laboratory work of the summer session either 
equals or excels in quality and equals or exceeds in quantity 
that of the regular year. Of the 31 universities answering, 
28 reported the work as being exactly the same for the sum- 
mer as for the regular year. The data show also that 22 
schools, or about 18 per cent, offer less work; while 7 
schools, or about 6 per cent, offer more work. 

We would conclude, then, that the laboratory work of 
the average summer school is of lower standard than that 
of the regular year. 

Research Work 

The questionnaire contained the following question rel- 
ative to research work: 

Briefly compare research work done during the summer 
with that done during the regular year. 

Answers received from 30 universities and 81 normal 
schools were as follows: 

79 schools answered: "None." 

13 schools answered : "Work is the same as during regu- 
lar year." 

20 schools answered: "Much less is done during the sum- 
mer." 
8 schools answered: "Work is better, for students are 
more mature." 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 



63 



1 school answered : "Offer advanced work in a number of 
departments, chiefly nonlaboratory." 

Of the 42 schools having research during the summer, 
only 14 were normal schools, and 8 of these reported the 
work as much less during the summer than during the reg- 
ular year. But few of the normal schools are making any 
attempt at research work at any time during the year. The 
number of schools reporting work as "the same" with those 
reporting it as "better" is about equal to the number re- 
porting the work as "less" during the summer." So, from 
these data no conclusion can be drawn as to the merits of 
research work done during the summer compared with that 
done during the regular year. However, a study of a large 
number of catalogs tends to show that in a majority of the 
schools there is very little research work done during the 
summer, and this of a rather elementary nature. 

Practice Teaching 

In the general questionnaire the following questions were 
asked pertaining to practice teaching: 

1. How many hours of practice teaching do you offer 
during the summer? 

2. Briefly, what is the nature of such teaching? 

The following is a summary of replies received from a 
total of 122 schools (for convenience the answers to both 
questions are combined) : 



No. Schools Reply 

41 "None." 

12 "2 to 4 semester hours. One student teacher does all 

teaching at first. Lesson plans are prepared by stu- 
dents and submitted to critic teachers or supervisors. 
Frequent individual conferences." 

13 "Give three hours' credit for summer term. At least 

three hours' teaching per week required of students." 
8 "21/2 to 5 credits allowed. Students required to do 1 to 
21/2 hours' teaching daily." 

10 "One hour's teaching required daily for half the term 
of six weeks. Work closely supervised by critic teach- 
ers." 

9 "Same as regular year." 

29 "Observation work only. 



No students teach." 



The foregoing was supplemented as far as possible by 
statements from the summer catalogs. 



"iW?^ 



64 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

The information, at best, reveals a lack of standardized 
practice teaching during the summer. The regular cata- 
logs show that a similar condition obtains during the reg- 
ular year. But few of the universities make any pretense 
at carrying on a practice school during the summer, and 29 
of the normal schools seem to afford merely observation 
facilities during the summer, without any attempt at main- 
taining a regular training school. 

It is seen that 52 offer or require a certain number of 
hours' work each day in the practice school, and that 9 of 
these offer the same nature and amount of work as during 
any term of the regular year. 

The catalogs and the replies to the questionnaire indi- 
cate that there is a lack of uniformity as to the number of 
practice teachers assigned to each critic teacher or super- 
visor, the number ranging from 5 to 18 during the summer 
and from 4 to 20 during the regular year. 

We would conclude from the data at hand that the prac- 
tice school during the summer is largely a matter of expe- 
diency and by no means corresponds in efficiency with the 
training school of the regular year. As to the effect upon 
teacher training, this condition is deplorable indeed; for 
when it is remembered that the summer school is planned 
and maintained for the purpose of contributing to the pro- 
fessional equipment of teachers, many of whom receive 
training from no other source, the significance of the train- 
ing school becomes evident. Let us indulge the hope that 
at no distant day the institutions of the country will awaken 
to a full realization that the training school, thruout the 
year, should form the core and nucleus of the work of 
teacher training. 

Summary 

A study was made of the curricula of summer schools 
under the following subject groups: Education, history 
and social science, geography, English, science, mathemat- 
ics, manual and fine arts, foreign languages, music, phys- 
ical education, certificate courses, special courses, and re- 
view courses. Catalogs of 65 normal schools and 40 uni- 
versities were examined with a view of determining the 
nature, purpose, value, and extent of the courses of study 
offered during the summer, and in what respect these 
courses compare with those of the regular year. 

There is shown to be a lack of uniformity as to the num- 
ber of courses offered in each group ; but there is consider- 
able uniformity between different sections of the country 
in the ratio of the number of summer courses to all courses, 
and also in the ratio of summer courses to regular courses. 



The Curricula of Summer Schools 65 

Relatively, the education group is more highly empha- 
sized in number of courses, credits offered, and richness of 
content than any other group. This subject group is more 
stressed in the Southern schools during the summer than in 
schools of other sections. 

The number of courses offered during the summer in nor- 
mal schools would seem to be disproportionate to the num- 
ber offered during the regular year. In the universities 
the ratio seems more consistent. 

Universities other than Southern have more closely re- 
lated the summer courses to the regular courses than have 
the other groups of schools. 

The content of the courses for the summer session does 
not differ materially from that of the courses for the reg- 
ular year. 

During the summer there seems to be a slight preponder- 
ance of professional work over academic work. 

The universities are contributing largely to teacher train- 
ing thru "teachers' courses," listed as academic work, but 
organized specifically for teachers. 

If we consider the "hour" as one recitation a week for a 
period of twelve weeks, the typical summer course is as- 
signed 4 hours' credit. 

The catalogs disclose a tendency toward the elimination 
of review courses and certificate courses, these being sup- 
planted by credits for summer attendance upon such courses 
as are most contributory to professional improvement. 

Professional and academic work are about evenly di- 
vided in the normal schools during both the summer and the 
regular year ; the universities give more emphasis to pro- 
fessional work during the summer than during the regular 
year. 

Laboratory work of the summer appears to be inferior 
to that of the regular year. 

Practice teaching during the summer is either entirely 
lacking or consists mainly in observation work. 

Research work during the summer is perhaps inferior to 
that of the regular year. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE FACULTIES OF SUMMER SCHOOLS COMPARED WITH 
THOSE OF THE REGULAR YEAR 

The preparation of summer faculties compared with that 
of the regular faculties has become a topic of wide discus- 
sion and considerable speculative thought, without, how- 
ever, any adequate investigation. The purpose of this 
chapter is to analyze the two faculties of a representative 
number of schools and elucidate points of similarity as well 
as difference; to point out as far as possible the signifi- 
cance of the scholarship of summer faculties as to the prob- 
lem of teacher training ; and, in the light of the facts shown, 
to make such recommendations as seem feasible and expe- 
dient. 

Plan of Study 

For lack of any other available standard for measuring 
scholarship, the faculties were analyzed with reference to 
degrees held, as shown by the catalogs of the schools con- 
sidered. In order of scholarship attainment, from highest 
to lowest, all degrees are here reported in terms of five 
divisions; viz., Ph.D., M.A., B.A., Honorary, and None. 

All bachelors' degrees are classed as "B.A." degrees, re- 
gardless of whether such degrees were conferred in some 
special field or for miscellaneous courses in the School of 
Arts and Sciences. Teachers holding more than one de- 
gree are classed under the heading represented by the high- 
est degree held. For example, if one holds a Ph.D. degree 
and an M.A. degree, he is classed under the heading "Ph.D." 
Any earned degree is here considered as higher than any 
honorary degree. Therefore, those teachers holding hon- 
orary and other degrees are classed under the heading rep- 
resented by the highest of the other degrees. Teachers 
listed in the catalogs as assistants merely are not included 
in this study, but those listed as assistant professors and 
associate professors are included. No members of the fac- 
ulties of practice schools are included, except those desig- 
nated as directors or principals. M.D. degrees, where the 
holders appeared to be bona-fide members of the faculty 
other than in the School of Medicine, are classed as "M.A." 
degrees. Faculties of schools of medicine and of schools 
of dentistry are not considered. 



Faculties of Summer Schools 67 

Source and Arrangement of Data 

The data were gathered from summer and regular cata- 
logs' of 100 normal schools and 50 colleges and universities. 
The normal schools were chosen by states rather than by 
any special merit of any school or group of schools, thus 
giving a somewhat random selection. 

State universities were selected as representing what is 
most typical and most nearly standardized in university 
and college training. Besides the state universities, the 
University of Chicago, Teachers College, Johns Hopkins, 
Harvard, Leland Stanford Junior, and Peabody College 
were considered.- 

The faculties for each subject group were listed and to- 
taled for each school ; also the total for all groups was found 
for each school. Then the percentage ratio of the number 
holding each degree to the total holding all degrees was 
computed for each subject. Then the average per cent 
holding each degree was found for each subject group in 
all schools studied. The average percentage relation of 
the number in the faculty of each subject group to the to- 
tal number in the faculties of all groups was computed. 
Thus the relation of the faculty of each subject group to 
the faculty in each of the other subject groups is plainly 
shown in the resulting tables. Also the relative number of 
teachers in the subject groups can be easily seen. The 
latter fact is of value only with reference to the size of 
classes and number of students pursuing each group, which 
will be considered in Chapter V. 

Tables 

The succeeding tables show the results of the study. Ta- 
bles IV and V show the per cent of teachers for the summer 
sessions in normal schools who were classed under the five 
headings previously mentioned. For example, in Table IV, 
on the average, 6 per cent of the 229 teachers of education 
in the summer sessions of Southern normal schools hold the 
Ph.D. degree; 20 per cent, the M.A. degree; 29 per cent, 
the B.A. degree; 1 per cent, an honorary degree only; and 
44 per cent, no degree at all. In like manner the faculty 
for the other subject groups is shown. The tables from 
IV to XI, inclusive, are alike. 

It may be noted from Table IV that there is a total aver- 
age of only 1.7 per cent of the 1,089 teachers in the sum- 



' Catalogs of 1916. 

" In succeeding pages this entire group will be referred to as "uni- 
versities." 



mmummmm 



ittiii 



mt 



68 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



mer faculties who hold Ph.D. degrees, 17 per cent who hold 
M.A. degrees, and so on — a showing of ten times as many 
M.A. degrees as Ph.D. degrees and twice as many B.A. as 
M.A. degrees. The number of honorary degrees is insig- 
nificant, but it is a fact worthy of notice that 47.5 per cent 
hold no degree at all. From the standpoint of teacher 
training it is gratifying that the education group ranks 
among the highest. 

Also, from Table IV it is seen that in the summer ses- 
sion of Southern normal schools less than one-fifth of the 
teachers hold the two highest degrees, while nearly one-half 
the teachers hold no degree at all. 



TABLE IV 

Summer Faculties — State Normal Schools of the South Showing: 

1. Total number of instructors considered. 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Per Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 1,089 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 229 6 20 29 1 44 

History and S. S 109 3 25 29 43 

Geography 34 33 44 23 

English 120 5 23 38 1 33 

Science 98 1 16 31 52 

Mathematics 87 2 30 36 32 

Manual and Fine Arts 174 3 34 63 

Foreign Languages 63 33 50 17 

Music 76 12 88 

Physical Education 44 4 47 49 

Other Courses 55 1 17 3 79 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 1.6 17 32 .4 47.5 



Faculties of Summer Schools 



69 



TABLE V 

Summer Faculties — State Normal Schools Other Than 
Southern Showing: 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Nuynber of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Pei' Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 1,775 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 426 13 28 28 31 

History and S. S 125 11 29 37 23 

Geography 71 6 18 32 44 

English 142 8 60 26 6 

Science 213 7 35 42 16 

Mathematics 107 6 16 55 23 

Manual and Fine Arts 249 3 18 79 

Foreign Languages 89 13 40 35 12 

Music 123 1 11 88 

Physical Education 106 7 14 79 

Other Courses 124 7 32 61 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 6.6 22.7 29.2 41.5 

It seems but fair to conclude that, in the light of present 
standard requirements of teachers in the public schools, 
especially in the high schools, the faculties of normal schools 
should be expected to maintain corresponding standards. 
In this sense Table IV reveals a standard too low. 

Southern Faculties of Southern Normal Schools 
Compared With Those of Other Normal Schools 
A comparison of Tables IV and V gives a slightly better 
showing for summer faculties of normal schools of other 
sections than for summer faculties of the South. There is 
seen to be a greater average per cent of Ph.D. and M.A. 
degrees, with correspondingly fewer B.A. degrees and 
those with no degrees. The education group again ranks 
among the highest. 

The fact that such a large percentage in both groups of 
schools holds no degree may be too much emphasized, for 
the catalogs show that many of those teachers holding no 
degree have received rather thoro training in normal 
schools and have received from one summer to three years' 
college training. 

Summer Faculty of Normal Schools Compared With 
Regular Faculty 
A comparison of Tables IV and VI indicates that the 
regular faculty of the normal schools of the South has rel- 




iifiiiiiiimii^ 



70 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



atively more teachers holding the highest degrees and more 
holding the B.A. degree than has the summer faculty. 



TABLE VI 

Regular Faculties — State Normal Schools of the South Showing : 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Niimber of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. 
Per 

Total in All Groups, 1,340 Cent 

Education 255 7 

History and S. S 120 4 

Geography 67 

English 133 4 

Science 227 3 

Mathematics 134 4 

Manual and Fine Arts 122 

Foreign Languages 80 

Music 67 1 

Physical Education 81 

Other Courses 54 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 2.8 



M.A. 


B.A. 


Hon. 


None 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


Cent 


24 


39 


1 


29 


25 


41 





10 


52 


37 





11 


22 


62 





12 


26 


57 





14 


32 


48 





16 


15 


23 





62 


22 


70 





8 


6 


16 





77 


5 


47 





48 


3 


42 





55 



22.8 



45 



1 



27.4 




',|SB||:'. 



TABLE VII 

Regular Faculties — State Normal Schools Other Than 
Southern Showing: 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Per Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 2,226 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 445 9 23 37 31 

History and S. S 156 6 38 50 6 

Geography 67 2 19 62 17 

English 223 4 32 50 14 

Science 379 5 26 52 17 

Mathematics 136 6 14 67 13 

Manual and Fine Arts 245 4 26 70 

Foreign Languages 158 10 20 56 14 

Music 134 2 14 84 

Physical Education 133 3 35 60 

Other Courses 150 3 28 69 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 4 18 42.4 35 



Faculties of Summer Schools 71 

It should be noted that both tables show that a very large 
per cent of the faculties for manual and fine arts, physical 
education, and music hold no degree. This is perhaps at- 
tributable to the fact that the two former subjects are com- 
paratively new, and there is a consequent dearth of teachers, 
and that the conferring of degrees in music is rather recent, 
and custom has not demanded degrees in this field. 

A like comparison of Tables V and VII shows that a 
larger number of teachers in the regular faculties hold de- 
grees than in the summer faculty. But the difference is 
not so marked as in the South. The same subject groups 
make both the best and the worst showings in the summer 
session, as in the regular year. The regular faculty shows 
fewer Ph.D. and M.A. degrees and more B.A. degrees than 
does the summer faculty. 

It can also be seen from the total averages of Tables VI 
and VII that more members of the regular faculty of the 
Southern normal school hold degrees than do members of 
the regular faculties of normal schools of other sections. 

Summer Faculties of Universities 

Tables VIII and IX show the summer faculties for uni- 
versities of the South and for other sections. Both tables 
show a high average of Ph.D. degrees in the faculties of 
education, history and social sciences, English, science, 
mathematics, and foreign languages; but Table IX shows a 
much higher average in those subjects than does Table 
VIII. The total averages for Table VIII show only 26 
per cent with no degree, with 20 per cent, 28 per cent, and 
24 per cent holding Ph.D., M.A., and B.A. degrees, respec- 
tively. Table IX shows that more members of the faculties 
of universities of other sections hold degrees than do the 
faculties of Southern universities. Attention is directed to 
the fact that more than 50 per cent of the teachers of his- 
tory and social sciences, mathematics, and foreign lan- 
guages hold Ph.D. degrees. 

Regular Faculties of Universities 
Tables X and XI show the -regular faculties for colleges 
and universities. As to total averages, there is no appre- 
ciable difference. The same subject groups show high per- 
centages for the highest degrees, as in the summer faculties. 
The specially high percentage of the education faculty that 
hold Ph.D. and M.A. degrees is noticeable, being 54 per 
cent and 34 per cent, respectively, for the Southern schools, 
and 54 per cent and 26 per cent, respectively, for schools 
of other sections. This last fact would justify the conclu- 
sion that in the average state university of this country the 




¥ih 



72 



Teacher' Training in Summer Schools 



department of education is provided during the regular year 
with a faculty as skillful and as well prepared as that of any 
other department, all of which should signify that consider- 
able importance attaches to the training of teachers in these 
institutions. 

TABLE VIII 

Summer Faculties — Colleges and Universities of the 

South Showing: 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors hi each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Per Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 1,004 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 181 23 34 19 4 20 

History and S. S 102 39 31 20 6 4 

Geography 25 12 60 19 9 

English 98 39 28 19 2 12 

Science 181 29 37 28 6 

Mathematics 80 22 37 29 12 

Manual and Fine Arts 100 3 16 27 54 

Foreign Languages 95 33 47 13 1 6 

Music 61 5 27 68 

Physical Education 39 10 34 56 

Other Courses 42 16 10 32 3 39 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 22.6 29 23.3 1.6 21.3 

TABLE IX 

Summer Faculties — Colleges and Universities Other Than 

Southern Shoviting: 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Per Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 2,053 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 287 42 27 21 3 7 

History and S. S 226 59 25 10 4 2 

Geography 43 11 24 41 2 22 

English 205 33 38 23 1 5 

Science 472 44 27 25 1 3 

Mathematics 105 54 33 11 2 

Manual and Fine Arts 164 7 9 33 51 

Foreign Languages 226 54 26 10 1 9 

Music 124 9 15 25 51 

Physical Education 103 4 17 30 49 

Other Courses 98 15 16 49 20 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 31 25 22.7 1.3 15 



Faculties of Summer Schools 



73 



TABLE X 

Regular Faculties — Colleges and Universities of the 
South Showing: 

1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 

No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. M.A. B.A. Hon. None 

Per Per Per Per Per 

Total in All Groups, 1,660 Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent 

Education 188 52 34 9 5 

History and S. S 180 38 24 30 3 5 

Geography 9 11 30 40 19 

English 118 39 34 21 6 

Science 564 28 39 30 3 

Mathematics 102 43 26 29 2 

Manual and Fine Arts 133 17 36 47 

Foreign Languages 183 44 45 8 3 

Music 48 1 39 60 

Physical Education 52 19 31 50 

Other Courses 83 10 11 39 40 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 30 25.4 26 3 12 



Regular Faculties- 



TABLE XI 

-Colleges and Universities Other Than 
Southern Showing: 



1. Total number of instructors considered 

2. Number of instructors in each subject group 

3. Per cent of instructors in each subject group holding the different 

degrees 

4. Total average per cent of instructors holding the different degrees 



No. in 

Each Group Ph.D. 
Per 

Total in All Groups, 3,947 Cent 

Education 394 54 

History and S. S 553 . 36 

Geography 39 43 

English 316 32 

Science 1,224 36 

Mathematics 197 52 

Manual and Fine Arts 355 15 

Foreign Languages 442 41 

Music 158 4 

Physical Education 119 

Other Courses 150 12 

Per Cent of Total Holding 

Each Degree 33.4 



M.A. B.A. Hon. None 



Per 
Cent 

26 

34 

39 

38 

31 

25 

23 

32 

16 

10 

11 

28.3 



Per 
Cent 

17 

30 

18 

26 
. 26 

22 

28 

21 

15 

32 

43 



Per Per 

Cent Cent 



25.3 



3 





4 

7 

1 
34 

6 
65 
58 
34 

13.3 



-. ^ li i iMii i iiBi 






74 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

Summer Faculties Compared With Regular 
Faculties of Universities 

It is apparent from Tables VIII and X that the regular 
faculties of Southern universities show to have a larger 
per cent of the higher degrees than do the summer facul- 
ties. But when certain subject groups are compared, the 
difference is still m^ore conspicuous. For instance, only 
23 per cent of the summer faculty for education hold the 
Ph.D. degree and 20 per cent hold no degree, while in the 
regular faculty for the same subject 52 per cent hold the 
Ph.D. degree and only 5 per cent hold no degree. A sim- 
ilar disparity is seen between the summer faculties and the 
regular faculties for mathematics and foreign languages. 

Shall we interpret this difference in the faculty for edu- 
cation to mean that teachers receive better training in the 
universities during the regular year than during the sum- 
mer? Our data force us to the affirmative conclusion. The 
conclusion is further substantiated by Tables XII and 
XIII, which show that a much larger per cent of the fac- 
ulty is devoted to education during the summer than dur- 
ing the regular year ; while in Chapter V it is shown that 
more teachers are in attendance upon the summer session 
and that classes in education are larger. Such attendance 
demands proportionately more teachers for education than 
for other departments, with less salary paid and a conse- 
quent lowering of the standard of scholarship. The fur- 
ther fact that a considerable part of summer work is made 
up of review courses and certificate courses (Chapter III) 
tends to force the admission that the summer work is not 
on a par with the work of the regular year. The fact is 
more or less mitigated, however, when it is remembered 
that a fr.r less per cent of students are seeking degrees dur- 
ing the summer than during the regular year, and, as a 
result, entrance requirements are far less rigid during the 
summer. (Chapter V.) 

The total average of Tables IX and XI show but little 
difference in the summer faculty and the regular faculty 
for universities other than Southern. As in the Southern 
universities, the regular faculty for education shows more 
of the higher degrees and B.A. degrees than does the fac- 
ulty of the summer term ; while the opposite is true for his- 
tory and social sciences, science, and foreign languages. 

Comparative Number of Teachers in Summer 
Faculty and Regular Faculty 

Tables XII and XIII present the average per cent of the 
entire faculty found in each subject group. It is clearly 



Faculties of Summer Schools 75 

seen that in the normal schools thruout the country the ed- 
ucation group forms a larger percentage of the faculty than 
does any other group. It is seen also that Southern normal 
schools emphasize this group during the summer to a 
greater degree than during the regular year, the percent- 
ages being 21 and 19, respectively. The same fact obtains 
for universities, the percentages being 18 and 14 during the 
summer as compared with 11 and 10, respectively, during 
the regular year. TABLE XII 

Showing Ratio ^f the Total Number of Instructors in Summer 

Faculties in Each Subject Group to the Total 

Number in All Groups 

Normal Schools Colleges and Universities 
Other Other 

Southern Sections Southern Sections 

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 

Education 21 24 18 14 

History and S. S 10 7 10 11 

Geography 3 4 2 2 

English 11 8 10 10 

Science 9 12 18 23 

Mathematics 8 6 8 .j 

Manual and Fine Arts__ 16 14 10 8 

Foreign Languages 6 5 10 11 

Music ■_ 7 . 7 6 6 

Physical Education 4 6 4 5 

Other Courses 5 7 4 5 

TABLE XIII 

Showing Ratio of the Total Number of Instructors in Regular 

Faculties in Each Subject Group to the Total 

Number in All Groups 

Normal Schools Colleges and Universities 
Other Other 

Southern Sections Southern Sections 

Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 

Education 19 20 11 10 

History and S. S 9 7 11 14 

Geography 5 3 11 

English 10 10 7 8 

Science 17 17 34 31 

Mathematics 10 6 6 5 

Manual and Fine Arts__ 9 11 8 9 

Foreign Languages 6 7 11 11 

Music 5 6 3 4 

Physical Education 6 6 3 3 

Other Courses 4 7 5 4 

TABLE XIV 

Showing Average Number of Teachers in Summer Sessions 
AND IN Regular Year 

Summer Sessions Regular Year 

Normal schools of the South 29 37 

Normal schools of other sections 35 54 

Colleges and universities of the South___ 59 94 

Colleges and universities of other sections 86 187 




itti 




76 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 





Attention is directed to the large percentage of teachers 
of science during both the summer and the regular year. 
From the former tables it may be noted that the science 
faculties show a very high degree of preparation relative 
to the large number devoted to the subject. The catalogs, 
especially those of universities, show that the field of sci- 
ence, with its many ramifications, completely eclipses all 
other fields. Even in the education departments, pure sci- 
ence and scientific research form a very large part of 
teacher training. Short courses in biology, chemistry, ag- 
riculture, and pure psychology are offered in the summer 
sessions. (See Chapter III as to laboratory work.) 

Table XIV shows the average number of teachers in both 
the summer and the regular faculties. The normal schools 
of the South use fewer teachers during both the summer 
and the regular year than does any one of the three other 
groups, except the summer faculties of Southern universi- 
ties. Since the average size of classes is larger in the 
South than in other sections, we would again conclude that, 
from the standpoint of faculties, the facilities for teacher 
training during the summer are inferior to those of other 
sections. 

It is further seen from Table XIV that the summer fac- 
ulties are considerably smaller during the summer than 
during the regular year. In the light of the fact that the 
average attendance during the summer is smaller than dur- 
ing the regular year, so far as absolute number of teachers 
is concerned, the inference is justifiable that results may 
be somewhat equalized between the summer-school work 
and the work of the regular year. 



Questionnaires Pertaining to Faculties 

In the general questionnaire sent out the following ques- 
tions were asked concerning the faculty : 

1. What per cent of the regular faculty teach during the 
summer ? 

2. What per cent of faculty teach all the year round? 

3. Number of hours' teaching per week — (a) regular 
session, (b) summer session. 

Of 150 normal schools and 50 universities to whom the 
questionnaire was submitted, 85 normal schools and 31 
universities answered question 1; 90 normal schools and 
28 universities answered question 2 ; and 88 normal schools 



Faculties of Summer Schools 



77 



and 30 universities answered question 3. The answers re- 
duced to percentages and summarized were as follows : 

Normals Universities 

Per cent of faculty teaching during the summer 71 59 

Per cent of faculty teaching during entire year 68 58 

Hours' teaching per week, summer 16 13 

Hours' teaching per week, regular year 17 14 

These results show that a slightly larger per cent of 
teachers in the regular faculties of normal schools work 
during the summer than work during the regular year, 
while in universities the per cent is about the same, being 
59 and 58 per cent, respectively. 

This fact would signify that, so far as permanent fac- 
ulties are concerned, the summer school is given about 
equal prominence with the rest of the year, and the infer- 
ence is justified that the summer work is more or less a 
continuation of the program for the regular year. As to 
number of hours' teaching per week, the advantage seems 
to be in favor of the summer school. 




CHAPTER V 



ATTENDANCE IN SUMMER SCHOOLS 



Perhaps no feature of summer schools is more significant 
in determining whether the movement is tributary to the 
main stream of education, a mere desultory expediency, or 
an intrinsic part of present educational procedure, than 
is the personnel and extent of attendance ; for here we may 
partially determine in a quantitative way just to what ex- 
tent the summer school is contributing toward a more en- 
lightened leadership for the school children of both city 
and country. 

Sources of Information 

The nature and the number of questions relative to at- 
tendance may be seen from the questionnaire. (Chapter 
I.) The incompleteness of records and the large amount of 
work entailed in answering some of the questions pre- 
cluded a whole-souled response from a large number of 
schools. Nevertheless, the nuniber is sufficiently great to 
typify in a large measure the nature and extent of attend- 
ance in the average summer school. The replies have been 
reduced to percentages of the total enrollment, except the 
replies to question 8, which are expressed in absolute num- 
bers. The replies are compiled separately for normal 
schools and for universities. The following table shows the 
results, based upon the attendance for the summer of 1916. 
The numbers in parentheses represent the number of 
schools replying. 

PER CENT OF TOTAL ENROLLMENT 

InNorvial Schools In Universities 

1. For full summer session 14% men 28% men 

76% women (81) 61% women (30) 

2. For part of summer session 2% men 2% men 

8% women 9% women 

3. Working for degree or diploma 40% (73) 44% (28) 

4. Receiving a degree or diploma 

for summer work only Practically none Practically none 

5. Receiving a degree or diploma 

for summer and regular 

work 6% (85) 4% (31) 

6. Teachers enrolled: 

a. College teachers Practically none 5% (26) 

b. High-school teachers 5% (68) 24% (28) 

c. Elementary teachers 63% (60) 17% (21) 

d. Principals 5% (71) 11% (23) 

e. Superintendents 3% (69) 5%o (27) 

f. Supervisors 3% (58) 4% (14) 

g. Rural 47% (89) 12% (15) 

h. Working for a degree Few reported or 30% (12) 

not known 



Attendance in Summer Schools 79 

PER CENT OP TOTAL ENROLLMENT 

. . , ^^^ J!formaI Schools Tn Uviversifies 

7, Not expecting: to teach 10% (16) 31% (lu) 

8. Average number in classes: 

a. During- re^lar year 21 (69) 19 (27) 

b. During summer 24 (69) 23 (27) 

It may be observed from the table that there are five 
times as many women enrolHng for the full term in normal 
summer schools and twice as many women in the univer- 
sity summer schools as there are men enrolling, and there 
IS an average of 10 per cent that enroll for only part of the 
session. 

In view of the fact that of 124 normal schools and 179 
colleges and universities holding summer sessions in 1916 
the median length of term was 7.25 weeks (Chapter I)' 
and 92 per cent of these 303 schools held a session of more 
than six weeks, the foregoing report on enrollment indi- 
cates that 90 per cent of the total enrollment in the sum- 
mer schools receive the advantages of at least 7 weeks' 
training during the summer. Since the group of univer- 
sities to which the questionnaire was sent includes only 
those of highest rank and consequently holding longest 
summer sessions, their median term is higher than that of 
the total 179 colleges and universities not of highest rank. 

Therefore, it seems safe to conclude that a majority of 
those enrolled in summer sessions are in attendance from 
8 to 10 weeks ; and since 9 per cent of the 303 schools have 
a median of 12 weeks, assuredly 9 per cent of the enroll- 
ment herein reported attended a session of 12 weeks. In 
like manner (Chapter I), it is evident that 16 per cent 
attend a term of 8 weeks, 8 per cent a term of 9 weeks, 
and 8 per cent a term of 10 weeks. The vast importance 
and the far-reaching significance of such attendance in the 
training of teachers can hardly be estimated, for it shows 
that the teachers of this country are availing themselves 
of the opportunity which the summer school offers for ma- 
terial improvement and permanent advancement. 

Answers to question 3 show that 40 per cent and 44 per 
cent of those enrolling in normal schools and universities, 
respectively, were working for a degree or a diploma. This 
fact may be interpreted as an indication that the standard 
requirements for teachers are being raised, and that the 
summer school is serving as one of the avenues thru which 
teachers may improve their scholarship to a degree com- 
mensurate with the requirements of such standard. An- 
swers to question 4 show that practically no degrees have 
been conferred for summer work alone, which fact is partly 
due to regulations of many of the institutions. Such a 



80 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

regulation is inconsistent with educational progress and 
the demands for better-trained teachers. Every barrier 
against the teacher's advancement should be removed. 
Every institution should make it possible for teachers to 
avail themselves of the summer session for obtaining a de- 
gree and thereby increase their possibilities for more eflS- 
cient and worthy service. 

In replying to question 6, a number of the schools in- 
cluded rural teachers under the item "elementary teachers." 
It is therefore difficult to ascertain just what per cent of 
the enrollment is rural and what per cent city-elementary. 
This error causes a discrepancy in the total per cents when 
added for 100, but it does not prevent an analysis of the 
problem as to the most important points. There is evi- 
dently a small enrollment of college teachers, supervisors, 
and superintendents in both normal schools and universi- 
ties, there being more of each, however, in the universities 
than in the normal schools. It seems that the normal 
schools enroll no college teachers and that only 5 per cent of 
their enrollment is principals. The preponderance of ele- 
mentary and rural teachers is evident in the normal schools. 
It would appear that the universities enroll the major part 
of the high-school teachers and also of those working for 
degrees. Furthermore, it is seen that teachers constitute 
about 90 per cent of the total enrollment in the normal 
schools and about 70 per cent in the universities. Since 
some of these questions were answered by only a few 
schools, the conclusions are more or less approximations ; 
but, judging from the exact replies obtained, the estimates 
are none too high, but are rather conservative. 

The replies to question 8 indicate that average classes 
are larger during the summer than during the regular year, 
but the difference is perhaps not so great as to affect mate- 
rially the equality of advantages offered. 

When it is remembered that the total enrollment in the 
summer schools of the United States in 1916 was about 
300,000, or 38 per cent of the entire teaching force of the 
nation, their tremendous importance as an agency for train- 
ing teachers becomes obvious. Nor does this enrollment 
include the more than 20,000 pupils in the summer prac- 
tice and observation schools held in connection with teacher- 
training schools. Neither does it include the many sum- 
mer schools failing to report to the Bureau of Education. 



CHAPTER VI 

MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 

The following miscellaneous questions not considered in 
previous chapters were included in the questionnaire: 

1. Do you have the four-quarter plan? 

Of 111 schools replying, 41 answered: *'Yes." 

2. If not, do you favor such a plan? 

Of 70 replying, 42 answered, "No," and 28 answered par- 
tially in the affirmative. (Practically all answers to this 
question expressed the decision of faculties.) 

3. Did you go on the four-quarter plan as a result of the 
war? 

Of 42 schools replying, 9 answered: "Yes." 

4. Or are you likely to do so on account of the war ? 

Of 66 replying, 58 answered, "No," and 8 answered that 
they did not know. 

This part of the questionnaire would have been far more 
satisfactory had it been sent to all schools in the country 
that hold summer sessions. The replies are, however, suffi- 
cient to indicate partially the tendency with reference to 
the four-quarter plan. 

Since about 40 per cent of the 111 schools replying now 
have the four-quarter .plan, there is obviously a considerable 
tendency toward the plan. Furthermore, as has been pre- 
viously shown (Chapter I), a large number of schools now 
have a modified four-quarter plan, as their length of sum- 
mer term is from 8 to 10 weeks, and credit is given for a 
full quarter's work. Again, the answers to question 2 
show that 40 per cent of those schools not on the four- 
quarter plan manifest toward it a favorable attitude ; which 
attitude is not transient, for only 9 schools, or 20 per cent, 
went on the four-quarter plan as a result of the war. Most 
of the affirmative replies come from universities and four- 
year normal schools, which tend to show that it is mainly 
these institutions that favor utilizing the school plant for 
the entire year. Very few of the two-year normal schools 
have the four-quarter plan. 

8. In general, compare the merits of your summer-school 
work with that of the regular year. 

The answers to question 8 were expressed in divers ways ; 
but, as to meaning, each may be interpreted in one of three 
ways — namely, the work of the summer school is superior 
to that of the regular year, it is essentially the same as 
that of the regular year, or it is inferior to that of the reg- 



Mii ii M iii r i tti i iiiiii^^ ^ 



82 Teacher Training in Summer Schools 

ular year. Of 29 universities replying, 9 reported the work 
as superior, 16 as essentially the same, and 4 as . inferior. 
Of 88 normal schools replying, 18 schools, or 21 per cent, 
reported the work as superior; 46 schools, or 53 per cent, 
as the same; and 23 schools, or 27 per cent, as inferior to 
that of the regular year. 

The answers to this question are very si,f;nificant as show- 
ing just what estimate the higher institutions are placing 
upon their summer work and what disposition some of the 
leaders in educational plans maintain toward the movement 
for the all-year-round school. Many of the answers are 
more or less characterized by a note of optimism, enthusi- 
asm, or genuine hopefulness. Even the answers designat- 
ing the work as inferior are usually qualified by commend- 
atory statements or mitigating explanations. The fol- 
lowing replies, taken at random and representing all sec- 
tions of the country, are illustrative : ' 

"The same standard is maintained." 

"Students more serious-minded and work harder." 

"Inferior, Mainly to meet certificate requirements." 

"There is no appreciable difference." 

"Work is essentially the same. Presence of teachers im- 
proves interest." 

"Work more intensive. Results equally as good." 

"In general, have best work during the summer session." 

"The tail v/ags the dog." 

"Same plan, except a series of special review classes and 
lectures are offered to summer-school students." 

"About the same." 

"Student body older, more serious, study harder, work 
more satisfactory." 

"Maintain the same standards as during the regular 
year." 

"Thoroughly practical, both from the standpoint of the 
teacher and classes, and the finest sort of spirit. Every 
phase of work compares favorably with regular session." 

"Students all more mature, and so the work is fully as 
good or better. Fewer distracting influences during the 
summer." 

"Usually better work done during the summer." 

"Work is about on a par with that of the regular session. 
Our summer students are nearly all teachers." 

"Summer students much more mature, hence do stronger 
work and use what they get more intelligently. Winter 
students have no fixed habits, so more amenable to sugges- 
tions," 



■M 



Miscellaneous Considerations 



S3 



"We see very little difference between work of summer 
session and regular year. Students, as a rule, are more 
mature. The summer quarter's attendance is larger, as 
many students are completing their work in that manner, 
or else they wish to prepare on special lines. I have had 
no complaint from members of the faculty of the classes in 
summer schools." 

"Same in credit value as winter. We try to make all 
work equally efficient. Students of summer term are usu- 
ally stronger and more diligent." 

"As good in every respect." 

"No special difference." 

The foregoing replies indicate that the prime motive for 
maintaining the summer school is to aid in training teach- 
ers and also to give students not expecting to teach a chance 
to pursue their work toward degrees, and that in a major- 
ity of the summer schools reporting the work is equal to or 
superior to that of the regular year. While some of the 
previous chapters do not in all particulars vouchsafe the 
rathe*' sweeping statements here given, when taken in their 
entirety, they do not contradict them. The conclusion that, 
technically, the summer school is in all respects equal to 
the regular year is not justified by the facts, But when 
viewed in the broadest sense, and especially with reference 
to the number of teachers improved in scholarship and in- 
spired toward higher ideals, the summer school is perhaps 
unsurpassed by any other agency. 



:::^iiiiii 



mgiiiing,,^ 



CHAPTER VII 

SOME GENERAL ADVANTAGES AND WEAKNESSES OF 
SUMMER SCHOOLS 

Besides the specific merits and demerits of summer 
schools already mentioned, the following general features 
are apparent: 

1. Kural teachers are given opportunity for improvement 
in both method and scholarship. While the university sum- 
mer schools enroll comparatively few rural teachers, they 
constitute a large per cent of enrollment in the summer ses- 
sions of state normal schools. These teachers are thus per- 
mitted to raise the grade of their certificates, to renew 
them, or to obtain college credit in lieu of them. The last 
choice is rapidly gaining precedence, for the school laws of 
many states require attendance upon a summer session as 
a condition for teaching or for the renewal of certificates. 
By such attendance teachers are brought face to face with 
the latest methods of teaching and are permitted also to ob- 
tain courses of instruction in class management. They 
may also receive suggestions for the solution of their own 
individual or local problems. Again, by enrolling in aca- 
demic classes, teachers may from summer to summer im- 
prove their scholarship. 

2. The summer school is a great factor in raising educa- 
tional standards. Only a few years ago grave apprehension 
was expressed lest summer schools degenerate into mere 
"institutes." Facts tend to show that such fears were un- 
grounded. While as a whole the work of the summer 
school is not on a parity with that of the regular year, most 
certainly the vast number of teachers it reaches and whose 
scholarship is thereby improved warrants the assertion 
that it is a most powerful agency in raising educational 
values, in enlarging the teacher's conception of her work, 
and in exalting her ideals of education. 

3. The summer school broadens the general educational 
outlook of teachers. Unquestionably one of the greatest 
benefits received by teachers from a session in a summer 
school comes from the personal contact and the professional 
association with other teachers in other fields of work and 
from other sections of the state or nation. Thousands of 
teachers are thus permitted to gain breadth of vision and 
imbibe inspiration from men and women of broader and 
deeper culture. In addition to this general uplift, the 
teacher may avail herself of specific instruction from ex- 



Advantages and Weaknesses of Summer Schools 85 

perts representing the large institutions of the country. 
Teachers may pursue regular courses with the very best 
instructors, and perhaps have time left for general lectures 
and social intercourse with their fellow teachers. Besides, 
summer schools offer many wholesome diversions. Cata- 
logs of summer schools now emphasize the facilities offered 
for high-class entertainment. Such entertainment in the 
form of lectures, dramas, scenic trips, games, and social 
functions, gives the teacher a change of attitude, and her 
summer months become a profitable means of recreation 
and realization. Such diversions, combined with profes- 
sional training, send the teacher away with renewed vigor 
and strength, in a more optimistic frame of mind, and with 
a more determined and exalted purpose. 

4. The summer school is an effective agency for improv- 
ing teachers in service. Unlike the members of other pro- 
fessions, the teacher is offered a liberal opportunity for 
perfecting her preparation while engaging in her work. 
With a minimum of initial preparation, she is given the 
chance of gradually rounding out her scholarship. The 
summer school is the chief instrument thru which this is 
done. It offers an opportunity for gradual growth and 
confers upon the teacher the possibility of realizing high 
professional attainment. Too, this opportunity reaches 
thousands of teachers who could not otherwise rise higher. 
Their very meager salaries preclude them from sparing the 
time and money for continuous attendance at college or uni- 
versity. Obviously, then, the summer school becomes a 
great economic factor in the training of teachers. 

5. The summer school gives an economic advantage, in 
the use of school plants, equipment, and time saved to stu- 
dents. The millions of dollars in the form of school plants, 
when put to use during the summer, yield a handsome div- 
idend, and at the same time meet such Qverhead expenses 
as are continuous thruout the year regardless of the use 
of the plant. Expensive laboratory equipment when idle 
depreciates almost as much in value as when in use and 
represents a vast investment of capital. Another economic 
feature of great significance is that college professors are 
offered employment thruout the year, such work offering a 
change of recreation equivalent to the effects of the same 
time spent in idleness or rest. The economic value of the 
time saved to students is of tremendous importance. On 
the four-quarter plan there is plainly a saving of one year 
out of four to the student working for the bachelor's de- 
gree. Therefore, education is hastened, the army of teach- 
ers augmented, and the standard of teachers' preparation 



86 



Teacher Training in Summer Schools 



proportionately raised. Since the war the necessity for 
speeding up our educational output becomes more appar- 
ent, and for doing so the summer school offers a most 
plausible method. Such an agency is of vast importance 
to the teachers and other college students returning from 
the army, since by attending a summer school for three 
sessions the loss of a year in the army may be retrieved. 

Such are a few of the commendable features of the sum- 
mer school. Among many weaknesses, the following are 
the most salient : 

1. The foregoing chapters show that as an agency for 
disseminating higher education, the summer school is far 
beyond the rudimentary stage; but it has not yet reached 
the high level demanded by the standards set by our great- 
est educational leaders and by the high ideals of American 
life. The work, as a whole, is not equivalent to the thoro 
scholarship offered during the regular year, and perhaps 
will never be so until the courses of the summer session are 
accorded the same prestige as the courses of the regular 
year. The work remains too much as a link between the 
quasi-academic public and the university. 

2. Laboratory and research work is not sufficiently em- 
phasized. Such work should be offered in cycles and of the 
highest standard and greatest practicability, substituting 
original work for that of mere erudition and of quality for 
that of quantity. 

3. There still lingers a tendency of the summer school to 
broaden rather than to deepen scholarship and culture, as 
is shown by a careful consideration of the courses of study 
offered. This tendency seems to be gradually disappear- 
ing, but many summer schools extend a false hope to those 
desiring to gain precise technical knowledge. By no means 
should the summer school endeavor to accomplish in a few 
weeks what should require a year of patient and painstak- 
ing work, accompanied by research and laboratory. Glam- 
our and veneering must not be substituted for depth, and 
the summer school must help to decrease rather than in- 
crease the number of poorly-trained teachers. 



Bihliogra'phy 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 



87 



Adams, Herbert B. — Catholic Summer Schools of America, Bureau of 
Education, Report, 1894-95, I: 1065-77. 

American Monthly Review of Reviews — American Summer Schools, 
1892-99, 5: 421-22, May, 1892; 7: 539-42, May, 1898; 9: 939-43, 
May, 1894; 11: 530-34, May, 1895; 13: 853-55, May, 1896; 15: 
554-55, May, 1897; 17: 540-41, May, 1898; 19: 583-85, May, 1899. 

Bond, Beverley W. — Practical Methods in Summer Sessions, History 
Teacher's Magazine, 5: 123-25, April, 1914. 

Bulletins, Bureau of Education, Nos. 48 and 449. 

Bureau of Education, Report, 1891-92: 891-959;" Repart, 1917, Vol. 
I: 481-497. 

Carney, F. — Efficiency of Summer Schools, Nation, 89: 509, Novem- 
ber 25, 1909. 

Catalogs of summer schools and of regular sessions of 50 universities 
and 150 normal schools in the United States, sessions of 1916. 

Chautauqua, 39: 474-76, July, 1904. 

Claxton, P. P. — Value of Summer Schools, Virginia Journal of Edu- 
cation, 4: 427-29, April, 1911. 

Columbia University Summer Session — Columbia University Quar- 
terly, 11: 19-27, December, 1908. 

Fletcher, Tom^The Teacher and the Summer School, Texa's School 
Journal, 29: 11-12, January, 1912. 

Judd, Charles H.— Summer Schools in United States, Bureau of Ed- 
ucation, Report, 1913, Vol. I: 545-51. 

Macdonald, William — Status of the Summer School, Nation, 89: 202- 
3, September 2, 1919. 

Marsh, J. F. — The University Summer School and the Training of 
Teachers, West Virginia Educational Conference, Proceedings, 
1915: 25-28. 

Mayer, A. G.— Should Our Colleges Establish Summer Schools? 
Science, 23: 703-4, May, 1910. 

Meaders, A. J.— The Summer School Worth While, Arkansas Teacher, 
4: 11-12, March, 1916. 

Morgan, W. P. — The Summer Normal, School News and Practical 
Educator, 29: 261-62, February, 1916. 

Mosher, Warren F., and Conaty, Rev. T. J. — Retrospective and Pro- 
spective Views of the Catholic Summer Schools of America, 
Mosher's Magazine, 14: 161-70, July, 1899. 

Mullaney, Rev. John F.— Summer Schools and Their Relation to 
Higher Education, Proceedings of the Thirty-First University 
Convocation, University of New York, 1893: 484-90. 

Rembert, A. G.— The Summer School and the Better-Trained Teacher, 
Southern School News, 1 : 3-4, 7-9, February and March, 1910. 



88 



Teacher Training in SuTnmer Schools 



Euediger, William Carl — Summer Schools, in his Agencies for the 
Improvement of Teachers in Service, U. S. Bureau of Education, 
Bulletin No. 3, 1911. 

School Education Co., Minneapolis — Report of the Teachers' Training 
Schools of Minnesota, 1895. 

School Laws of the Various States of the Union. 

School Announcements from Early Summer Schools in the United 
States; also reports from these same schools. 

Spread of Summer Schools, Independent, 55 : 1698-1700, July 16, 1903. 

Stewart, Jane A. — The Summer School, Journal of Education, 84: 
13, 17, July 6, 1916. 

Summer Normals — Virginia Journal of Education, 1: 27-31, October, 
, 1907. 

The Summer School — Dial, 16: 313-15, Historical Statement. 

Summer Schools and Continuovis Sessions of University and College, 
Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. 5: 450-52. 

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